The Old Testament, Animated

Overview

Deuteronomy, the fifth and last book of the Torah, is Moses' farewell. Its name comes from the Greek for "second law", a reading of 17:18 ("a copy of this law"). The Hebrew title, Devarim, means "Words", from the opening line: "These be the words which Moses spake unto all Israel." The whole book is set on the plains of Moab, east of the Jordan, in the fortieth year after the Exodus, over a few weeks just before Moses dies and Israel crosses into Canaan.

Most of the book is preaching rather than story. Moses speaks to the generation born in the wilderness, retells what God has done, restates the covenant made at Sinai (which Deuteronomy calls Horeb), and urges the people to love and obey God in the land. The book is laid out like an ancient treaty: history, terms, blessings and curses, witnesses, and arrangements for the future. Tradition attributes it to Moses. Many scholars link its final form to the reforms of King Josiah, when "the book of the law" was found in the temple (2 Kings 22). Its influence on the later history books and the prophets is very great, and Jesus quotes it more often than any other book of the Torah.

The book is built around three speeches and a closing section: the first speech (chs 1–4), the second speech with the law code (chs 5–26), blessings, curses and the call to choose (chs 27–30), and Moses' last acts and death (chs 31–34).

Part 1 — Remembering the Journey (chapters 1–4)

Setting (1:1–5). "On this side Jordan, in the land of Moab," in the eleventh month of the fortieth year, Moses begins to explain the law.

From Horeb to Kadesh (1). God tells Israel, "Ye have dwelt long enough in this mount," and sends them toward Canaan. Moses recalls appointing judges and telling them, "Ye shall hear the small as well as the great… for the judgment is God's." At Kadesh-barnea the spies' report made the people afraid, even though God had carried them "as a man doth bear his son". Because they refused to go in, that generation was barred from the land, apart from Caleb and Joshua.

Through the nations (2–3). For thirty-eight years Israel circled in the wilderness. God then led them past Edom, Moab and Ammon without fighting, because those lands had been given to the descendants of Esau and Lot. Sihon king of Heshbon and Og king of Bashan attacked and were defeated, and their land went to Reuben, Gad and half of Manasseh. Moses pleaded, "Let me go over, and see the good land," but God refused and told him to look from Pisgah and to strengthen Joshua.

The call to obey (4). "Ye heard the voice of the words, but saw no similitude" (4:12), so Israel must make no image of God and must not worship the sun, moon or stars. Moses warns that idolatry will lead to exile, but promises that "if from thence thou shalt seek the LORD thy God, thou shalt find him." He sets apart three cities of refuge east of the Jordan.

Part 2 — The Covenant and Its Laws (chapters 5–26)

The Ten Commandments (5). Moses repeats the Decalogue. The covenant was made "with us, who are all of us here alive this day." In this version the Sabbath command rests on the memory of slavery in Egypt rather than on creation.

The Shema (6). "Hear, O Israel: The LORD our God is one LORD: and thou shalt love the LORD thy God with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might" (6:4–5). These words are to be on the heart, taught to children, bound on the hand and forehead, and written on doorposts and gates. When a child asks what the laws mean, the answer is the story: "We were Pharaoh's bondmen in Egypt; and the LORD brought us out." Jesus later called the command to love God the first and greatest commandment.

Chosen in love (7). Israel must not make treaties with the Canaanite nations or adopt their worship. God chose Israel "not because ye were more in number… for ye were the fewest of all people: but because the LORD loved you."

Do not forget (8). God humbled them in the wilderness and fed them manna "that he might make thee know that man doth not live by bread only, but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of the LORD" (8:3). In a land of wheat, vines and iron they must not say, "My power… hath gotten me this wealth."

Not because of righteousness (9–10). Israel is "a stiffnecked people". Moses recalls the golden calf, his forty days of prayer, and the second tablets placed in the ark. "What doth the LORD thy God require of thee, but to fear… to walk in all his ways, and to love him?" (10:12). God "doth execute the judgment of the fatherless and widow, and loveth the stranger", so Israel must love the stranger too. They are told to "circumcise… the foreskin of your heart."

A land watered from heaven (11). Unlike Egypt, Canaan depends on rain, and rain depends on faithfulness. The blessing and the curse are to be proclaimed from Mounts Gerizim and Ebal.

One place of worship (12). Canaanite shrines are to be destroyed. Sacrifices may be offered only "in the place which the LORD your God shall choose… to put his name there", which later history identifies with Jerusalem.

False prophets (13). A prophet, a dreamer, or even a close family member who says "Let us go after other gods" must not be followed, even if their signs come true.

Holiness, tithes and generosity (14–15). Laws on clean and unclean food are followed by the annual tithe and the third-year tithe for the Levite, stranger, orphan and widow. Every seventh year debts are cancelled and Hebrew servants freed and sent away with gifts: "Thou shalt open thine hand wide unto thy brother."

The three pilgrim feasts (16). Passover and Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Weeks and the Feast of Tabernacles are kept at the chosen place, and the whole household, including servants, Levites, strangers, orphans and widows, is to "rejoice".

Justice and leadership (16:18–18:22). Judges must take no bribes: "That which is altogether just shalt thou follow" (literally "justice, justice"). A future king must not gather many horses, wives or great wealth, and must write out a copy of the law and read it all his life. Priests and Levites live from the offerings. Divination, sorcery and consulting the dead are forbidden. God promises, "I will raise them up a Prophet from among their brethren, like unto thee" (18:18), a promise later applied to the line of prophets and, in the New Testament, to Jesus.

Life, war and the courts (19–21). Cities of refuge protect someone who kills by accident. Boundary stones must not be moved. Two or three witnesses are required, and a false witness receives the penalty he intended for the accused. Rules of war require an offer of peace first, send home the newly married and the fearful, and protect fruit trees. Other laws cover unsolved murders, captive wives and the rights of a firstborn son.

Neighbourly laws (22–25). A stray animal must be returned to its owner, and a railing must be built round a flat roof. Some laws concern marriage and sexual conduct. A runaway slave must not be handed back. Interest may not be charged to a fellow Israelite. Workers are to be paid before sunset. The forgotten sheaf and the gleanings belong to the poor. The ox treading grain must not be muzzled, weights and measures must be honest, and Amalek is to be remembered.

First fruits (26). Settled in the land, each Israelite brings a basket of first fruits and recites: "A Syrian ready to perish was my father, and he went down into Egypt…" The confession ends with the gift of "a land that floweth with milk and honey." The second speech closes with mutual vows: Israel will be God's people, and God will be their God.

Part 3 — Blessing, Curse and Choice (chapters 27–30)

Ebal and Gerizim (27). Across the Jordan, the law is to be written on large plastered stones and an altar built on Mount Ebal. Six tribes stand on Gerizim for the blessing and six on Ebal for the curse. The Levites read twelve curses on hidden sins, and the people answer each one with "Amen."

Blessings and curses (28). Obedience brings blessing: "Blessed shalt thou be in the city, and blessed shalt thou be in the field", with rain, harvests, children, herds and victory. Disobedience brings a much longer list of curses: drought, disease, defeat, siege, famine and finally scattering "from the one end of the earth even unto the other." Later books read Israel's exiles in the light of this chapter.

The covenant at Moab (29–30). Moses calls the present generation, and those not yet born, into the covenant. "The secret things belong unto the LORD our God: but those things which are revealed belong unto us." After exile God will gather his people and "circumcise thine heart… to love the LORD." The command is not out of reach: "The word is very nigh unto thee, in thy mouth, and in thy heart." Then comes the climax: "I have set before you life and death, blessing and cursing: therefore choose life" (30:19).

Part 4 — Moses' Last Acts (chapters 31–34)

Joshua and the written law (31). Moses tells Joshua in front of all Israel, "Be strong and of a good courage… he will not fail thee, nor forsake thee." He writes the law, gives it to the priests and elders to be kept beside the ark, and orders it read aloud to all Israel every seven years at the Feast of Tabernacles. God warns that Israel will turn away, and gives Moses a song to stand as a witness.

The Song of Moses (32). "Give ear, O ye heavens… He is the Rock, his work is perfect." The song tells of God's care, like an eagle stirring its nest and finding Israel "in a desert land". Israel grows fat and forgets him ("Jeshurun waxed fat, and kicked"), judgment follows, and then God's mercy: "I kill, and I make alive." God tells Moses to climb Mount Nebo to die.

The blessing of the tribes (33). Like Jacob in Genesis 49, Moses blesses the tribes one by one: Reuben, Judah, Levi, Benjamin ("the beloved of the LORD shall dwell in safety"), Joseph and the rest. It ends: "The eternal God is thy refuge, and underneath are the everlasting arms… Happy art thou, O Israel."

The death of Moses (34). From Pisgah on Mount Nebo God shows Moses the whole land, from Gilead to Dan and on to the western sea. Moses dies in Moab "according to the word of the LORD." God buries him in a valley, and "no man knoweth of his sepulchre unto this day." He is 120 years old, "his eye was not dim." Israel mourns thirty days. Joshua is "full of the spirit of wisdom", and the people obey him. The Torah closes: "There arose not a prophet since in Israel like unto Moses, whom the LORD knew face to face."

Key themes, and the bridge to Joshua

• Remember. The book keeps telling Israel to remember slavery, rescue, manna and rebellion, and to pass the story on to their children. Forgetting God in times of plenty is the danger it warns against most.
• Love as the heart of the law. The Shema makes love for the one God the centre of everything. Obedience answers God's love, which came first.
• One God, one people, one place. The book requires exclusive loyalty, no images, and worship only at the place God chooses.
• Justice for the vulnerable. The widow, orphan, stranger, Levite, debtor, slave and even the ox are protected, because Israel knows what it was like to be strangers in Egypt.
• Today. "This day" recurs throughout. Each generation stands at Moab and must choose for itself.
• Blessing and curse. The covenant's terms explain the history that follows in Joshua to Kings: faithfulness brings life in the land, and unfaithfulness ends in exile. The promise that God will one day change the people's hearts goes beyond that pattern.

Deuteronomy ends with Moses dead, buried by God in a grave no one has found, and Joshua in command at the Jordan with the written law in the ark. The land God promised to Abraham lies across the river. The Book of Joshua begins straight afterwards: "Moses my servant is dead; now therefore arise, go over this Jordan."

Overview

Joshua opens the second major section of the Hebrew Bible, the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings). It continues directly from Deuteronomy. Moses has died on Mount Nebo, and Joshua son of Nun, his assistant since the Exodus, leads Israel across the Jordan into Canaan. The book tells how the promise God made to Abraham, that his descendants would have the land, is fulfilled. It covers Joshua's whole career, from the crossing (traditionally dated to the late Bronze Age) to his death at 110.

Jewish tradition credits Joshua with writing most of the book. Many modern scholars see it as part of a "Deuteronomistic History" put into its final form centuries later. Archaeologists debate how the conquest happened and how quickly. The book itself both summarises sweeping victories ("so Joshua took all that land") and admits that much land was still unconquered. Its accounts of war, including the "ban" (herem) by which cities were devoted to destruction, are hard for modern readers. Jewish and Christian interpreters have read them in different ways: as judgement on Canaanite wickedness (Genesis 15:16), as stylised ancient war reporting, and as lessons about faithfulness.

The book has four parts: entering the land (chs 1–5), the conquest (chs 6–12), dividing the land among the tribes (chs 13–22), and Joshua's farewell and the covenant at Shechem (chs 23–24).

Part 1 — Crossing into Canaan (chapters 1–5)

Joshua's commission (1). "Moses my servant is dead; now therefore arise, go over this Jordan." God promises Joshua, "As I was with Moses, so I will be with thee: I will not fail thee, nor forsake thee." He tells him three times to "be strong and of a good courage", and to keep the book of the law: "thou shalt meditate therein day and night." The eastern tribes (Reuben, Gad and half of Manasseh) promise to fight alongside the others.

Rahab and the spies (2). Two spies go into Jericho and lodge with Rahab, a prostitute whose house is built into the city wall. She hides them under stalks of flax on her roof and sends the king's men off on a false trail. She confesses that "the LORD your God, he is God in heaven above, and in earth beneath." She lets them down through her window on a rope, and they swear to spare everyone in her house if she ties a scarlet cord in the window. Later Scripture honours her for her faith (Hebrews 11:31), and Matthew lists her among the ancestors of David.

Crossing the Jordan (3–4). The river is in flood at harvest time. As soon as the priests carrying the ark step into the water, the river stops and stands "upon an heap" far upstream at Adam, and the people cross on dry ground. One man from each tribe carries a stone from the riverbed, and Joshua sets up the twelve stones at Gilgal so that "when your children shall ask… What mean ye by these stones?" the story will be told.

Gilgal (5). The men born in the wilderness are circumcised, and God says, "This day have I rolled away the reproach of Egypt." Israel keeps Passover on the plains of Jericho. The next day they eat the produce of Canaan and the manna stops. Near Jericho, Joshua meets a man with a drawn sword who says he has come as "captain of the host of the LORD". Joshua takes off his sandals, as Moses did at the burning bush, "for the place whereon thou standest is holy."

Part 2 — The Conquest (chapters 6–12)

Jericho (6). For six days the army marches once round the shut-up city in silence, led by seven priests blowing rams' horns in front of the ark. On the seventh day they march round seven times. At the long trumpet blast Joshua cries, "Shout; for the LORD hath given you the city," the people shout, and "the wall fell down flat." The city is devoted to God and burned, its metals go to the LORD's treasury, and Rahab's family is rescued as promised. Joshua curses anyone who rebuilds Jericho (fulfilled in 1 Kings 16:34).

Ai and Achan (7). A small force sent against Ai is routed and thirty-six men die. Joshua tears his clothes in grief. God reveals that "Israel hath sinned": someone has taken some of the devoted spoil. Lots are drawn by tribe, clan, family and man, and they point to Achan of Judah. He confesses to hiding a Babylonian robe, two hundred shekels of silver and a gold wedge under his tent. He and his household are stoned in the Valley of Achor ("trouble").

Ai taken; the covenant at Ebal (8). Joshua sets an ambush behind Ai, draws its defenders out by pretending to retreat, and at God's command holds out his javelin. The hidden troops take the city and burn it. Then, as Moses commanded, Joshua builds an altar on Mount Ebal, writes a copy of the law on stones, and reads "all the words of the law, the blessings and cursings" to the whole assembly, including women, children and foreigners.

The Gibeonite trick (9). The people of Gibeon put on worn-out clothes and sandals, carry mouldy bread and pretend to come from a far country. Israel's leaders "asked not counsel at the mouth of the LORD" and make a treaty with them. When the truth comes out three days later, the oath stands. The Gibeonites are spared and become "hewers of wood and drawers of water" for the sanctuary.

The long day and the southern campaign (10). Adoni-zedek of Jerusalem and four other Amorite kings attack Gibeon. Joshua marches all night from Gilgal and routs them. As they flee down the pass of Beth-horon, God throws down great hailstones, which kill more than the sword. Joshua prays, "Sun, stand thou still upon Gibeon; and thou, Moon, in the valley of Ajalon," and the sun stays in the sky "about a whole day", a day like no other, "for the LORD fought for Israel." The five kings, found hiding in a cave at Makkedah, are executed. Joshua takes Libnah, Lachish, Eglon, Hebron and Debir, from Kadesh-barnea to Gaza.

The northern campaign (11). Jabin king of Hazor gathers a huge coalition "as the sand that is upon the sea shore", with many horses and chariots, at the waters of Merom. God tells Joshua, "Be not afraid." Joshua attacks suddenly, hamstrings the horses, burns the chariots and burns Hazor, "the head of all those kingdoms". The war is described as lasting "a long time". The Anakim, the giants who had frightened the spies, are wiped out except in Gaza, Gath and Ashdod.

The list of kings (12). Two kings defeated east of the Jordan under Moses (Sihon and Og) and thirty-one west of the Jordan under Joshua are listed. "And the land rested from war" (11:23).

Part 3 — The Inheritance (chapters 13–22)

Land still to take (13). God tells the aged Joshua, "There remaineth yet very much land to be possessed": Philistia, the coast and Lebanon. The land east of the Jordan given by Moses to Reuben, Gad and half of Manasseh is described. Levi receives no territory: "the LORD God of Israel was their inheritance."

Caleb's request (14). Caleb, now 85, reminds Joshua of the spying mission forty-five years earlier. "As my strength was then, even so is my strength now… Now therefore give me this mountain." Joshua gives him Hebron "because that he wholly followed the LORD." Caleb drives out the Anakim there, and his nephew Othniel captures Debir and marries Caleb's daughter Achsah (15).

Judah and Joseph (15–17). Judah receives the south, with a detailed boundary and town list, though it cannot drive the Jebusites out of Jerusalem. Ephraim and the other half of Manasseh receive the central hill country. The daughters of Zelophehad receive land as Moses ordered. The Joseph tribes complain of too little room, and Joshua tells them to clear the forests and take the hill country, iron chariots or not.

Shiloh and the seven tribes (18–19). The whole community gathers at Shiloh and sets up the tabernacle there. Joshua asks the seven tribes still without land, "How long are ye slack to go to possess the land?" Surveyors map the remaining territory in seven parts, and Joshua casts lots before the LORD for Benjamin, Simeon (within Judah), Zebulun, Issachar, Asher, Naphtali and Dan. Joshua is given Timnath-serah in Ephraim.

Cities of refuge and Levite towns (20–21). Six cities of refuge are named: Kedesh, Shechem and Hebron west of the Jordan, and Bezer, Ramoth-gilead and Golan east of it. Forty-eight towns with pasture lands are given to the Levites throughout the tribes. The section ends: "There failed not ought of any good thing which the LORD had spoken unto the house of Israel; all came to pass" (21:45).

The altar by the Jordan (22). Joshua sends the eastern tribes' soldiers home with his blessing. At the Jordan they build a large altar, and the other tribes, fearing a rival sanctuary and God's anger, gather for war. Phinehas the priest leads a delegation to find out why. The eastern tribes explain that the altar is only a copy, a "witness between us" that their descendants also belong to the LORD. The delegation is satisfied and war is avoided.

Part 4 — Joshua's Farewell (chapters 23–24)

Charge to the leaders (23). Joshua, now "old and stricken in age", gathers Israel's leaders. God has fought for them, and "not one thing hath failed of all the good things which the LORD your God spake." He tells them to keep the law, to "cleave unto the LORD your God", and not to intermarry with or worship the gods of the remaining nations, which would otherwise become "snares and traps unto you, and scourges in your sides".

The covenant at Shechem (24). At Shechem, where Abraham first built an altar in Canaan, Joshua retells Israel's history as God's own words: Terah and Abraham serving other gods "on the other side of the flood"; Isaac, Jacob and Esau; Moses and Aaron; the plagues and the sea; the wilderness; Balaam; Jericho; "a land for which ye did not labour, and cities which ye built not." Then he calls for a decision: "Choose you this day whom ye will serve… but as for me and my house, we will serve the LORD" (24:15). The people promise three times to serve the LORD. Joshua warns, "Ye cannot serve the LORD: for he is an holy God," and tells them to put away their foreign gods. He makes a covenant, writes it in "the book of the law of God", and sets up a large stone under the oak by the sanctuary as a witness.

Three burials (24:29–33). Joshua dies at 110, the same age as Joseph, and is buried at Timnath-serah. Joseph's bones, carried out of Egypt as he had asked (Genesis 50:25), are buried at Shechem in the plot Jacob bought. Eleazar the priest dies and is buried in Ephraim. "Israel served the LORD all the days of Joshua, and all the days of the elders that overlived Joshua."

Key themes, and the bridge to Judges

• Promise kept. The land sworn to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob is given. The book repeatedly says that God's word did not fail.
• The LORD fights for Israel. The river parts, walls fall, hail and a lengthened day bring the victories. Joshua's role is to obey and to trust.
• Obedience and its opposite. Rahab, a Canaanite, is saved by faith, and Achan, an Israelite, is destroyed for disobedience. Belonging to God's people depends on loyalty as well as birth.
• A continuation of Moses. Joshua repeats Moses' signs (a crossing on dry ground, holy ground, intercession) and leads by "the book of the law".
• Land as inheritance. The long boundary lists show that every tribe, clan and family, including Caleb and the daughters of Zelophehad, receives its share as a gift.
• Unfinished work. Canaanites remain in Jerusalem, Gezer and the Philistine coast. Joshua warns that what is left could become a trap.
• Choice. The book ends with the choice at Shechem. Each generation has to decide whom it will serve.

Joshua closes with Israel settled, faithful while Joshua and the elders live, and three graves in the hill country. The question left open is what the next generation will do. Judges answers straight away: "there arose another generation after them, which knew not the LORD."

Overview

Judges covers the time between Joshua's death and the rise of the monarchy, roughly two centuries in which Israel lived as a loose federation of tribes in Canaan with no central government. The "judges" (shofetim) were not mainly courtroom officials. They were leaders raised up by God to rescue particular tribes from foreign oppressors, after which they "judged" Israel for a time. There are twelve in all: six major figures with full stories (Othniel, Ehud, Deborah with Barak, Gideon, Jephthah and Samson) and six minor ones mentioned in a verse or two.

The book is arranged around a repeating cycle. Israel does evil and serves the Baals, God hands them over to an enemy, they cry out, God raises up a deliverer, and the land has rest until the deliverer dies. Then it starts again, and each time things get worse. The judges themselves become more flawed as the book goes on, from Othniel, who has no faults recorded, to Samson, who is ruled by his appetites. The closing chapters show Israel's religious and moral collapse, and they repeat a refrain: "In those days there was no king in Israel: every man did that which was right in his own eyes." Jewish tradition credits Samuel with writing the book. Modern scholars usually see it as part of the Deuteronomistic History, compiled from older tribal stories and poems such as the very ancient Song of Deborah.

The book has three parts: a double introduction (1:1–3:6), the stories of the judges (3:7–16:31), and two closing appendices showing Israel in chaos (chs 17–21).

Part 1 — Unfinished Conquest, Unfaithful People (1:1–3:6)

Incomplete victory (1). After Joshua's death, Judah and Simeon fight on, taking Bezek and Hebron, and Othniel wins Debir and marries Caleb's daughter Achsah. But Judah "could not drive out the inhabitants of the valley, because they had chariots of iron." The chapter lists tribe after tribe that "did not drive out" the Canaanites: Benjamin in Jerusalem, Manasseh, Ephraim, Zebulun, Asher, Naphtali and Dan, which is pushed back into the hills.

Bochim and the cycle (2:1–3:6). The angel of the LORD comes to Bochim ("weepers"). Because Israel made treaties with the Canaanites, they will become "thorns in your sides" and their gods "a snare". After Joshua's generation dies, "there arose another generation after them, which knew not the LORD." The narrator then explains the pattern for the whole book: apostasy, oppression, crying out, a deliverer, rest, and then a deeper apostasy. The remaining nations are left "to prove Israel".

Part 2 — The Deliverers (3:7–16:31)

Othniel (3:7–11). Israel serves the Baals and Asherahs and is oppressed for eight years by Cushan-rishathaim of Mesopotamia. The Spirit of the LORD comes on Othniel, Caleb's nephew, who defeats him. The land has rest forty years. He is the model judge.

Ehud (3:12–30). Eglon king of Moab, "a very fat man", rules Israel from Jericho for eighteen years. Ehud, a left-handed Benjamite, brings tribute with a two-edged dagger strapped to his right thigh. In Eglon's private upper room he says, "I have a message from God unto thee," and stabs him. He escapes while the servants wait outside the locked door, rallies Ephraim, and seizes the Jordan fords. Moab is defeated and the land rests eighty years.

Shamgar (3:31). He strikes down six hundred Philistines with an ox goad.

Deborah, Barak and Jael (4–5). Jabin, a Canaanite king of Hazor, oppresses Israel for twenty years with his general Sisera and nine hundred iron chariots. Deborah, a prophetess, judges Israel under the palm tree between Ramah and Bethel. She summons Barak of Naphtali to Mount Tabor with ten thousand men. Barak will not go without her, so the honour will go to a woman. God routs Sisera at the River Kishon, and the Song of Deborah suggests a storm and flash flood made the chariots useless ("The river of Kishon swept them away"). Sisera flees on foot to the tent of Jael, wife of Heber the Kenite. She gives him milk, covers him, and while he sleeps drives a tent peg through his temple. Chapter 5, the Song of Deborah, is one of the oldest poems in the Bible. It praises the tribes who came, scolds those who stayed away, celebrates Jael as "blessed above women", imagines Sisera's mother waiting at her window, and ends: "So let all thine enemies perish, O LORD: but let them that love him be as the sun when he goeth forth in his might." The land rests forty years.

Gideon (6–8). The Midianites, with the Amalekites and "children of the east", invade every harvest "as grasshoppers for multitude" with camels beyond counting, and Israel hides in caves. A prophet reminds the people of the Exodus. The angel of the LORD finds Gideon threshing wheat in a winepress to hide it and says, "The LORD is with thee, thou mighty man of valour." Gideon protests that his clan is the weakest in Manasseh and he is the least in his family. Fire from a rock consumes his offering. That night he pulls down his father's altar of Baal and the Asherah pole and builds an altar to the LORD. When the town demands his death, his father Joash replies, "If he be a god, let him plead for himself," and Gideon is nicknamed Jerubbaal. Gideon asks for signs: a fleece wet with dew on dry ground, then dry on wet ground. God cuts his army from 32,000 to 10,000 by sending home the fearful, then to 300 who lap water from their hands, "lest Israel vaunt themselves." After overhearing a Midianite's dream of a barley loaf flattening a tent, Gideon divides the 300 into three companies with trumpets and torches hidden in jars. At night they blow the trumpets, break the jars and shout, "The sword of the LORD, and of Gideon!" The Midianites panic, turn on one another and flee. Gideon pursues them across the Jordan, punishes the towns of Succoth and Penuel for refusing help, and kills the kings Zebah and Zalmunna. Offered a hereditary crown, he refuses: "The LORD shall rule over you." But he makes a gold ephod from the spoil, and "all Israel went thither a whoring after it: which thing became a snare unto Gideon." The land rests forty years.

Abimelech (9). After Gideon dies, his son by a concubine in Shechem, Abimelech, hires "vain and light persons" and kills his seventy half-brothers on one stone. Only Jotham, the youngest, escapes. From Mount Gerizim Jotham tells a fable: the olive, fig and vine refuse to be king of the trees, but the bramble accepts and threatens fire. He warns that Abimelech and Shechem will destroy each other. After three years they fall out. Abimelech burns the tower of Shechem with its people inside, but at Thebez a woman drops an upper millstone on his head. He orders his armour-bearer to kill him so it cannot be said a woman did it. "Thus God rendered the wickedness of Abimelech."

Tola and Jair (10:1–5). Two minor judges. Jair had thirty sons who rode thirty donkeys and ruled thirty towns.

Jephthah (10:6–12:7). Israel's idolatry grows to include the gods of Syria, Sidon, Moab, Ammon and Philistia. When they cry out, God answers, "Go and cry unto the gods which ye have chosen," but they put away the foreign gods and "his soul was grieved for the misery of Israel." Jephthah, the son of a prostitute, had been driven out by his half-brothers and led a band of raiders. The elders of Gilead now ask him to lead them against Ammon. He sends the Ammonite king a careful historical argument about Israel's claim to the land, which is rejected. The Spirit of the LORD comes on him, but he makes a rash vow to offer as a burnt offering whatever first comes out of his house to meet him if he wins. He defeats Ammon, and his only daughter comes out dancing with timbrels. "I have opened my mouth unto the LORD, and I cannot go back." She asks for two months to mourn with her friends in the mountains, and "he did with her according to his vow." Interpreters debate whether this means sacrifice or lifelong dedication. Afterwards the Ephraimites pick a quarrel. At the Jordan fords anyone who says "Sibboleth" instead of "Shibboleth" is killed, and 42,000 Ephraimites die.

Ibzan, Elon and Abdon (12:8–15). Three more minor judges, remembered for their many children and grandchildren.

Samson (13–16). Israel does evil and the Philistines rule them for forty years. The angel of the LORD appears to the childless wife of Manoah of Dan: she will bear a son who will be a Nazirite from the womb, and "no razor shall come on his head… he shall begin to deliver Israel." When Manoah offers a sacrifice, the angel ascends in the altar flame. Samson grows up, and "the Spirit of the LORD began to move him." Against his parents' wishes he insists on marrying a Philistine woman from Timnah: "she pleaseth me well." On the way he tears apart a young lion with his bare hands, and later finds honey in its carcass. At the wedding feast he sets a riddle, "Out of the eater came forth meat, and out of the strong came forth sweetness," which his bride, threatened by her people, gets out of him and passes on. He kills thirty men of Ashkelon to pay the wager. When his wife is given to another man, he ties torches to three hundred foxes and burns the Philistine grain, vineyards and olive groves. The Philistines burn his wife and her father. The men of Judah hand Samson over bound, but he breaks the ropes and kills a thousand men with a fresh jawbone of a donkey, and God gives him water from a hollow at Lehi. In Gaza he tears out the city gate, doors, posts and bar, and carries it to a hilltop near Hebron. Then he loves Delilah of the valley of Sorek. Each Philistine lord offers her 1,100 pieces of silver. Three times Samson lies about his strength: fresh bowstrings, new ropes, and his hair woven into a loom. Finally he tells her the truth. While he sleeps on her knees she has his seven locks shaved, and "he wist not that the LORD was departed from him." The Philistines gouge out his eyes and set him grinding grain in the prison at Gaza, "howbeit the hair of his head began to grow again." At a great feast for their god Dagon, they bring him out to entertain them. Samson prays, "O Lord GOD, remember me… strengthen me, I pray thee, only this once," braces himself against the two middle pillars and pushes. The temple falls on the lords and three thousand people on the roof, so that "the dead which he slew at his death were more than they which he slew in his life." He had judged Israel twenty years.

Part 3 — Israel Without a King (chapters 17–21)

Micah's idol (17). An Ephraimite named Micah returns stolen silver to his mother, who has part of it made into a carved and cast image. He sets up a shrine with an ephod and household gods, and hires a wandering young Levite from Bethlehem as his priest. "Now know I that the LORD will do me good, seeing I have a Levite to my priest." The refrain appears: "every man did that which was right in his own eyes."

Dan's migration (18). The tribe of Dan, still without secure land, sends scouts north. They stop at Micah's house, then come back with six hundred armed men, take the idol and the priest, and the Levite goes with them gladly. They attack Laish, "a people that were quiet and secure", burn it and rebuild it as Dan. There they set up the idol, served by Jonathan, a grandson of Moses, "until the day of the captivity of the land."

The outrage at Gibeah (19). A Levite from Ephraim fetches his concubine back from her father's house in Bethlehem. Refusing to stop at Jebus (Jerusalem) because it is a foreign town, they reach Gibeah of Benjamin, where only an old man takes them in. Men of the town surround the house and demand the Levite, echoing the story of Sodom. The concubine is pushed out to them and abused all night, and at dawn she lies dead at the door with her hands on the threshold. The Levite cuts her body into twelve pieces and sends them throughout Israel. "There was no such deed done nor seen from the day that the children of Israel came up out of the land of Egypt."

Civil war (20). Four hundred thousand men gather "as one man" at Mizpah. Benjamin refuses to hand over the guilty men of Gibeah and musters 26,000 men, including seven hundred left-handed slingers who "could sling stones at an hair breadth, and not miss." Israel is defeated twice. On the third day, after weeping and fasting before the ark at Bethel, where Phinehas still serves, they use an ambush, as at Ai, and take Gibeah. The tribe of Benjamin is almost destroyed, and only six hundred men escape to the rock of Rimmon.

Wives for Benjamin (21). Israel has sworn not to give its daughters to Benjamin, and now grieves that "there is one tribe cut off from Israel." Because Jabesh-gilead did not come to Mizpah, they destroy it and take four hundred young women for the survivors. The remaining two hundred men are told to hide in the vineyards at the yearly feast at Shiloh and seize girls as they come out to dance. The book closes with the refrain in full: "In those days there was no king in Israel: every man did that which was right in his own eyes" (21:25).

Key themes, and the bridge to Ruth

• The downward spiral. Each round of the cycle is worse than the last. The judges grow more compromised, the tribes more divided, and by the end Israel's worst enemy is itself.
• God's patience. Again and again God hears the people's cry and sends a deliverer, even when they do not deserve it. "His soul was grieved for the misery of Israel."
• Unlikely deliverers. A left-handed man, a woman under a palm tree, a tent-dwelling wife, the least son of the weakest clan, an outcast's son and a flawed strongman. God works through weakness, but the book does not excuse their faults.
• The Spirit of the LORD. The Spirit "comes upon" judges for particular tasks, which looks ahead to the anointing of kings and prophets.
• Compromise with Canaan. Failing to drive out the nations leads to intermarriage, idolatry and imitation of their ways. By the end, Israel's own towns behave like Sodom.
• The need for a king. The refrain "no king in Israel" points ahead to the monarchy. It also raises the question Gideon raised, whether Israel needs a king or needs to obey the LORD as king.

Judges ends with Israel's tribes intact but scarred, its worship corrupted and its towns lawless. The next book, Ruth, is set "in the days when the judges ruled". In Bethlehem, the same town the Levite and his concubine came from, a famine, a widow and a loyal Moabite woman begin a story of faithfulness that leads to King David.

Overview

Ruth is a short story of four chapters set "in the days when the judges ruled" (1:1). Against the violence and chaos of Judges, it tells a quiet tale of ordinary faithfulness in the town of Bethlehem in Judah, and of a Moabite widow who becomes an ancestor of King David.

The book turns on the Hebrew word hesed: loyal, covenant love that goes beyond duty. Ruth shows it to Naomi, Boaz shows it to Ruth, and behind both the Lord is quietly at work. Jewish tradition reads Ruth at the feast of Shavuot (Weeks), the time of the wheat harvest. Its date of writing is debated; the closing genealogy points towards the time of David or later.

The story moves in four scenes: emptiness in Moab and the return (ch 1), gleaning in the field of Boaz (ch 2), the night at the threshing floor (ch 3), and redemption at the town gate with the birth of Obed (ch 4).

Part 1 — Emptiness and return (chapter 1)

Famine and death in Moab (1:1–5). A famine drives Elimelech of Bethlehem, his wife Naomi and their sons Mahlon and Chilion to Moab. Elimelech dies. The sons marry Moabite women, Orpah and Ruth, and after about ten years both sons die too, leaving three widows.

The parting on the road (1:6–14). Hearing that the Lord has "visited his people in giving them bread," Naomi heads home. She urges her daughters-in-law to go back to their mothers' houses and find new husbands. Orpah kisses her and returns.

Ruth's vow (1:15–18). Ruth clings to Naomi: "Whither thou goest, I will go… thy people shall be my people, and thy God my God" (1:16). She binds herself with an oath even unto death. It is one of Scripture's great statements of loyalty and conversion.

Arrival in Bethlehem (1:19–22). The town is stirred. Naomi asks to be called Mara, "bitter": "I went out full, and the Lord hath brought me home again empty." Yet they arrive at the beginning of the barley harvest — a hint that fullness is coming.

Part 2 — In the field of Boaz (chapter 2)

Ruth gleans (2:1–7). The Law allowed the poor, the widow and the foreigner to gather what the reapers left (Leviticus 19:9–10). Ruth goes out, and "her hap was to light on" the field of Boaz, a man of wealth and a relative of Elimelech.

Boaz's kindness (2:8–16). Boaz greets his workers with "The Lord be with you." He has heard of Ruth's care for Naomi and blesses her: may she be rewarded by the Lord, "under whose wings thou art come to trust" (2:12). He gives her water and bread, and quietly tells his men to let extra grain fall for her.

Naomi's hope (2:17–23). Ruth brings home about an ephah of barley. When Naomi hears the name Boaz, she recognises him as one of their go'el, a kinsman-redeemer with the right to buy back family land and protect the family line. Ruth gleans through the barley and wheat harvests.

Part 3 — The threshing floor (chapter 3)

Naomi's plan (3:1–5). Seeking "rest" (security) for Ruth, Naomi sends her, washed and dressed, to the threshing floor where Boaz is winnowing barley. Ruth is to uncover his feet and lie down.

The midnight request (3:6–13). Boaz wakes startled. Ruth asks him to "spread thy skirt over thine handmaid; for thou art a near kinsman" — the image echoes the "wings" of 2:12. Boaz praises her loyalty and calls her "a virtuous woman" (3:11). But there is a nearer redeemer with the first claim; Boaz promises to settle the matter.

Waiting (3:14–18). Before dawn he sends her home with six measures of barley. Naomi says, "Sit still, my daughter… the man will not be in rest, until he have finished the thing this day."

Part 4 — Redemption and a son (chapter 4)

At the gate (4:1–12). Boaz sits at the town gate with ten elders and the nearer kinsman. The man is willing to buy Naomi's land, but not to marry Ruth and raise up a name for the dead, since it would endanger his own inheritance. He draws off his sandal as a sign of transfer. Boaz buys the land and takes Ruth as his wife. The elders bless the marriage, recalling Rachel, Leah, and Tamar.

Obed is born (4:13–17). The Lord gives Ruth conception and she bears a son. The women bless the Lord, who has not left Naomi without a redeemer, and say Ruth "is better to thee than seven sons." Naomi, once empty, holds the child to her bosom. The neighbours name him Obed.

The genealogy (4:18–22). A ten-generation line runs from Perez to Boaz, Obed, Jesse — and David.

Key themes, and the bridge to 1 Samuel

• Hesed. Loyal love shown in small, costly choices by ordinary people shapes Israel's history.
• Providence. God is rarely mentioned as acting directly, yet "chance" meetings and harvest timing reveal his hidden hand.
• Redemption. The kinsman-redeemer buys back land and restores a family line, a picture that later readers, Jewish and Christian, take up in wider ways.
• The outsider welcomed. A Moabite woman, from a people Israel kept at arm's length, becomes a model of faith and an ancestor of the king.
• From empty to full. Naomi's story moves from famine and grief to harvest and a grandson.

The book ends not with a resolution but with a name: David. In the anarchy of the judges, Ruth quietly prepares the royal line. 1 Samuel picks up the thread with another woman's sorrow and faith — Hannah — whose son Samuel will anoint first Saul and then David, Ruth's great-grandson.

Overview

1 Samuel tells how Israel moved from the loose tribal rule of the judges to a monarchy. It spans roughly the late eleventh century BC and centres on three figures: Samuel, the last judge and a prophet; Saul, the first king; and David, the shepherd chosen to replace him. Its scenes run from the sanctuary at Shiloh to the battlefields of the Philistine border and the wildernesses of Judah.

In the Hebrew Bible, 1 and 2 Samuel form a single book, named after Samuel though he dies partway through. Tradition links it to Samuel, Nathan and Gad (1 Chronicles 29:29); many scholars see it as drawing on several earlier sources, edited later. It is often read alongside Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges and Kings as one long history of Israel in the land.

The book falls into four parts: Samuel's rise and the fate of the Ark (ch 1–7); Israel demands a king and Saul is made king (ch 8–12); Saul's failure and David's anointing (ch 13–17); and Saul's pursuit of David, ending in Saul's death (ch 18–31).

Part 1 — Samuel and the Ark (chapters 1–7)

Hannah's prayer (1). Elkanah worships yearly at Shiloh. His wife Hannah is barren and taunted by his other wife Peninnah. She prays silently, vowing to give a son to the Lord. Eli the priest thinks she is drunk, then blesses her. She bears Samuel and, once he is weaned, gives him to serve at Shiloh.

Hannah's song (2:1–11). "My heart rejoiceth in the Lord." God brings down the proud and "raiseth up the poor out of the dust." The song ends with the first mention of the Lord's "anointed" king, anticipating what is to come.

Eli's house and Samuel's call (2:12–3:21). Eli's sons Hophni and Phinehas abuse the offerings and the women at the sanctuary, and a man of God pronounces judgement on Eli's family. "The word of the Lord was precious [rare] in those days." The Lord calls the boy Samuel by night; on Eli's advice he answers, "Speak; for thy servant heareth." Samuel becomes known from Dan to Beersheba as a prophet.

The Ark captured (4). Beaten by the Philistines near Ebenezer, Israel brings the Ark of the Covenant into battle as a talisman. They are routed, Hophni and Phinehas die, and the Ark is taken. Eli, ninety-eight, falls backward and dies. His daughter-in-law names her son Ichabod: "The glory is departed from Israel."

The Ark among the Philistines (5–6). In Dagon's temple at Ashdod the idol is found fallen before the Ark, then broken. Tumours and plague strike Ashdod, Gath and Ekron. After seven months the Philistines send the Ark back on a new cart drawn by two milk cows, which walk straight to Beth-shemesh. It rests at Kiriath-jearim for twenty years.

Victory at Mizpah (7). Samuel calls Israel to put away foreign gods. As he offers a lamb, the Philistines attack, but "the Lord thundered with a great thunder" and they flee. Samuel sets up a stone called Ebenezer, "Hitherto hath the Lord helped us," and judges Israel from his circuit of towns.

Part 2 — A king like the nations (chapters 8–12)

The demand for a king (8). Samuel's sons are corrupt. The elders say, "Make us a king to judge us like all the nations." The Lord tells Samuel, "They have not rejected thee, but they have rejected me." Samuel warns that a king will take their sons, daughters, fields and a tenth of their flocks. They insist.

Saul anointed (9–10). Saul son of Kish, a tall Benjaminite, searches for his father's lost donkeys and is led to Samuel, who privately anoints him. Signs follow, and Saul prophesies among the prophets. At Mizpah the lot falls on Saul, who is found hiding among the baggage. "God save the king."

Jabesh-gilead and Gilgal (11). Nahash the Ammonite threatens to gouge out the right eye of every man in Jabesh-gilead. Saul musters Israel and rescues the town. The kingdom is renewed at Gilgal.

Samuel's farewell (12). Samuel's integrity is affirmed. He recounts God's faithfulness and calls down thunder and rain in the wheat harvest as a sign. King and people will prosper only if they fear and serve the Lord.

Part 3 — Saul rejected, David chosen (chapters 13–17)

Saul's impatient sacrifice (13). At Gilgal, with the Philistines massing and his troops deserting, Saul offers the burnt offering before Samuel arrives. Samuel declares that his kingdom will not continue: "The Lord hath sought him a man after his own heart."

Jonathan at Michmash (14). Jonathan and his armour-bearer climb a cliff to attack a Philistine garrison: "There is no restraint to the Lord to save by many or by few." Panic and an earthquake rout the enemy. Saul's rash oath against eating nearly costs Jonathan his life, until the army ransoms him.

Amalek and rejection (15). Ordered to devote Amalek to destruction, Saul spares King Agag and the best livestock. "To obey is better than sacrifice, and to hearken than the fat of rams." When Saul grabs Samuel's robe it tears; so the Lord has torn the kingdom from him. Samuel mourns for Saul.

David anointed (16:1–13). Samuel goes to Jesse in Bethlehem. Seven sons are passed over: "Man looketh on the outward appearance, but the Lord looketh on the heart." The youngest, David, is fetched from the sheep and anointed, and the Spirit comes upon him.

David at court (16:14–23). As the Spirit leaves Saul, a troubling spirit torments him. David's harp-playing brings relief, and Saul makes him his armour-bearer.

David and Goliath (17). In the Valley of Elah, the Philistine champion Goliath of Gath defies Israel for forty days. David, bringing food to his brothers, volunteers. He refuses Saul's armour and takes five smooth stones and a sling: "Thou comest to me with a sword… but I come to thee in the name of the Lord of hosts." Goliath falls, and the Philistines flee.

Part 4 — The fugitive and the fall of Saul (chapters 18–31)

Friend and rival (18–19). Jonathan loves David "as his own soul" and makes a covenant, giving him his robe and weapons. Women sing, "Saul hath slain his thousands, and David his ten thousands," and Saul grows jealous. He hurls his spear at David and sets a deadly bride-price for his daughter Michal. Michal, who loves David, lets him down through a window to escape.

Jonathan's arrows (20). Jonathan confirms his father's intent to kill David and signals it with arrows shot past a boy. The two friends weep and part.

Nob and Adullam (21–22). The priest Ahimelech gives David the holy bread and Goliath's sword. Saul, informed by Doeg the Edomite, has eighty-five priests of Nob killed; only Abiathar escapes to David. At the cave of Adullam about four hundred men in distress, debt or discontent gather around him.

In the wilderness (23–24). David rescues Keilah from the Philistines but must keep moving. In a cave near En-gedi he cuts off the corner of Saul's robe but refuses to harm "the Lord's anointed." Saul weeps: "Thou art more righteous than I."

Nabal and Abigail (25). Samuel dies. The rich, churlish Nabal insults David's men, and David vows revenge. Nabal's wife Abigail intercepts him with gifts and wise words, keeping him from bloodguilt. Nabal dies ten days later, and Abigail marries David.

The spear and the jug (26). At Ziph, David and Abishai enter Saul's camp while a deep sleep from the Lord falls on everyone. David again spares Saul, taking his spear and water jug, and calls to him from a distance. Saul admits, "I have played the fool."

Among the Philistines (27; 29–30). David takes refuge with Achish of Gath, who gives him Ziklag. The Philistine commanders refuse to let him march against Israel. Returning, he finds Ziklag burned and the families taken by Amalekites. "David encouraged himself in the Lord his God," pursues the raiders and recovers everyone, sharing the spoil with those who guarded the baggage.

The medium at Endor (28). Facing the Philistines at Shunem and receiving no answer from God, Saul disguises himself and consults a medium, though he had banned such practices. Samuel appears and repeats his verdict: the kingdom is David's, and tomorrow Saul and his sons will be with him.

Mount Gilboa (31). Israel is routed. Jonathan, Abinadab and Malchishua are killed, and Saul, badly wounded by archers, falls on his own sword. The Philistines hang the bodies on the wall of Beth-shan. The men of Jabesh-gilead, remembering his rescue of them, travel all night to recover the bodies and bury them under a tree.

Key themes, and the bridge to 2 Samuel

• God's kingship and human kings. Asking for a king "like all the nations" is a rejection of God, yet God works through the monarchy, on his own terms.
• Obedience over appearance. Saul looks the part; David is chosen for his heart. Ritual without obedience is worthless (15:22).
• Reversal. As Hannah sang, the barren bear children, the proud fall and the shepherd boy is raised up.
• The Lord's anointed. David's refusal to seize the throne by force, even when Saul is at his mercy, marks him as a king who waits for God.
• Loyal friendship. Jonathan's covenant love for David, at great cost to his own claim, is one of the book's bright threads.

1 Samuel ends in defeat and darkness: Israel's first king dead by his own hand, the Philistines triumphant, and David in exile among Israel's enemies. 2 Samuel opens with David hearing the news at Ziklag, mourning Saul and Jonathan, and beginning the long road to the throne.

Overview

2 Samuel is the story of David's forty-year reign, roughly the early tenth century BC. It continues straight on from 1 Samuel (originally one book) and moves from Hebron to Jerusalem, from the battlefields of Israel's neighbours to the inner rooms of David's own palace.

The book is unusually honest about its hero. The first half shows David's rise to power and God's covenant promise to his house. The turning point is his sin with Bathsheba and the murder of Uriah (ch 11). The second half traces the consequences: violence and rebellion within his own family, and a kingdom that nearly falls apart. Its last four chapters form an appendix of stories, lists and songs.

The structure: David becomes king over Judah, then all Israel (ch 1–5); the Ark, the covenant and the kingdom established (ch 6–10); Bathsheba and Nathan (ch 11–12); Absalom's revolt and its aftermath (ch 13–20); and the appendix (ch 21–24).

Part 1 — David becomes king (chapters 1–5)

News of Saul's death (1). At Ziklag an Amalekite brings Saul's crown and bracelet, claiming to have killed him. David has him executed for striking "the Lord's anointed." He laments Saul and Jonathan in the Song of the Bow: "How are the mighty fallen!" — "thy love to me was wonderful, passing the love of women."

King in Hebron (2). Judah anoints David king at Hebron. Saul's commander Abner makes Ish-bosheth, Saul's son, king of the other tribes. A contest at the pool of Gibeon turns into battle; Abner kills Joab's brother Asahel.

Abner and Ish-bosheth (3–4). "David waxed stronger and stronger, and the house of Saul waxed weaker and weaker." Abner defects to David, but Joab murders him at Hebron's gate in revenge. David mourns publicly and curses Joab's act. Two captains assassinate Ish-bosheth and bring his head to David, who has them executed.

King over all Israel (5). The tribes anoint David at Hebron. Aged thirty, he reigns forty years. He takes the Jebusite stronghold of Jerusalem, makes it the City of David, and defeats the Philistines in the Valley of Rephaim. Hiram of Tyre builds him a cedar palace.

Part 2 — The Ark, the covenant and the kingdom (chapters 6–10)

The Ark comes to Jerusalem (6). David moves the Ark on a new cart. When the oxen stumble, Uzzah touches the Ark and dies. After three months at Obed-edom's house, David brings it up with sacrifices and joy, dancing "before the Lord with all his might." Michal despises him; David says he will be humbler still before the Lord.

God's covenant with David (7). David wants to build God a house. Through Nathan God replies that he will build David a "house," a dynasty: "Thine house and thy kingdom shall be established for ever before thee." David's son will build the temple. David prays in awe: "Who am I, O Lord God?" This promise becomes central to later hopes for a king from David's line.

Victories and kindness (8–10). David subdues the Philistines, Moab, Zobah, Aram, Edom and Ammon, and "executed judgment and justice unto all his people." For Jonathan's sake he brings Mephibosheth, Jonathan's lame son, to eat at his table and restores Saul's lands to him. Ammon insults David's envoys, provoking war.

Part 3 — Bathsheba and Nathan (chapters 11–12)

The sin (11). In spring, "at the time when kings go forth to battle," David stays home. From his roof he sees Bathsheba bathing, sends for her, and she conceives. He recalls her husband Uriah the Hittite from the siege of Rabbah, but Uriah refuses to go home while the Ark and army are in tents. David sends him back with a letter to Joab ordering him placed where he will die. Uriah is killed. David marries Bathsheba. "But the thing that David had done displeased the Lord."

Nathan's parable (12:1–15). Nathan tells of a rich man who takes a poor man's only ewe lamb. David is outraged, and Nathan says, "Thou art the man." The sword will never depart from David's house. David confesses, "I have sinned against the Lord" (Psalm 51 is traditionally linked to this moment), and is told he will not die.

The child and Solomon (12:15–31). The child falls ill; David fasts and pleads, but the child dies. "I shall go to him, but he shall not return to me." Bathsheba bears Solomon, whom the Lord loves; Nathan names him Jedidiah. Rabbah is taken.

Part 4 — Absalom's revolt (chapters 13–20)

Amnon and Tamar (13). David's eldest son Amnon rapes his half-sister Tamar, then drives her out. David is angry but does nothing. Two years later Absalom, Tamar's brother, has Amnon killed at a sheep-shearing feast and flees to Geshur.

Absalom returns (14). Joab uses a wise woman of Tekoa to persuade David to bring Absalom home. Two years pass before David will see him.

Stealing hearts (15:1–12). Absalom, famed for his looks and hair, waits at the city gate and wins over petitioners: "Oh that I were made judge in the land!" He "stole the hearts of the men of Israel," then proclaims himself king at Hebron. Ahithophel, David's counsellor, joins him.

David's flight (15:13–16:14). David leaves Jerusalem, crossing the Kidron and climbing the Mount of Olives weeping and barefoot. He sends the Ark back with Zadok and Abiathar and sends Hushai to undermine Ahithophel. Shimei of Saul's clan curses and stones him; David restrains Abishai: "Let him curse."

Counsel against counsel (16:15–17:29). Absalom takes David's concubines publicly, on Ahithophel's advice. Ahithophel urges an immediate strike; Hushai advises delay, and Absalom follows Hushai, "for the Lord had appointed to defeat the good counsel of Ahithophel." Ahithophel hangs himself. David crosses the Jordan to Mahanaim.

Absalom's death (18). David orders, "Deal gently for my sake with the young man." In the forest of Ephraim Absalom's army is routed. Riding a mule, Absalom is caught by his head in an oak. Joab thrusts three darts into him. Hearing the news, David weeps: "O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! would God I had died for thee."

Return and Sheba (19–20). Joab rebukes the king for shaming his loyal troops. David returns, pardons Shimei, hears Mephibosheth, and honours old Barzillai. Judah and Israel quarrel over the king. Sheba son of Bichri cries, "We have no part in David," and leads a revolt; Joab murders his rival Amasa, besieges Abel, and a wise woman has Sheba's head thrown over the wall.

Part 5 — Appendix (chapters 21–24)

The Gibeonites and Rizpah (21:1–14). A three-year famine is linked to Saul's slaughter of the Gibeonites, in breach of Joshua's treaty. Seven of Saul's descendants are handed over and killed. Rizpah, Saul's concubine, guards their bodies on a rock from harvest until the rains. David then buries the bones of Saul and Jonathan in their family tomb.

Giants and mighty men (21:15–22; 23:8–39). David's warriors kill Philistine giants of Gath. The list of mighty men includes the Three and Benaiah. When David longs for water from the well of Bethlehem, three men break through Philistine lines to fetch it; he pours it out to the Lord rather than drink "the blood of the men that went in jeopardy of their lives." The list ends, pointedly, with Uriah the Hittite.

David's song and last words (22:1–23:7). A psalm of deliverance (also Psalm 18): "The Lord is my rock, and my fortress, and my deliverer." His last words picture the just ruler "as the light of the morning" and rest on God's "everlasting covenant."

The census and the threshing floor (24). David orders a census of fighting men; afterwards his conscience strikes him. Offered three judgements by the prophet Gad, he chooses to "fall now into the hand of the Lord." A plague kills seventy thousand. As the angel reaches Jerusalem, God says, "It is enough." David buys Araunah's threshing floor — "neither will I offer… of that which doth cost me nothing" — and builds an altar, and the plague stops. This site later becomes the temple mount (2 Chronicles 3:1).

Key themes, and the bridge to 1 Kings

• The Davidic covenant. God's promise of an everlasting house and throne (ch 7) is the theological heart of the book and of later messianic hope.
• Grace and consequence. David is forgiven, yet his sin echoes through his family in rape, murder and rebellion.
• A king under God. David is great not because he is flawless but because he repents and trusts God, and refuses to grasp power by violence.
• Jerusalem. The city becomes political and religious centre, home of the Ark and, at Araunah's floor, the future temple.
• Loyalty and betrayal. Mephibosheth, Hushai, Ittai and Barzillai stand alongside Joab, Ahithophel and Absalom.

The book closes with David old, an altar on the threshing floor, and the succession unresolved. 1 Kings opens with the aged king's court split between his sons Adonijah and Solomon, and with Solomon on the throne building the temple on the very ground David bought.

Overview

1 Kings covers about 120 years, from the last days of David (around 970 BC) to the death of Ahab of Israel and the reign of his son Ahaziah (around 850 BC). It begins with Israel at the height of its power under Solomon and ends with the nation split in two and the northern kingdom deep in the worship of Baal.

In the Hebrew Bible, 1 and 2 Kings are one book. Jewish tradition credits Jeremiah; many scholars see it as a history compiled during or after the Babylonian exile from sources it names, such as "the book of the acts of Solomon" and the chronicles of the kings of Israel and Judah. It judges each king by one measure: faithfulness to the Lord and to worship at the Jerusalem temple.

The book has three movements: Solomon's accession, wisdom and temple (ch 1–11); the division of the kingdom and the kings that follow (ch 12–16); and the ministry of Elijah in the reign of Ahab (ch 17–22).

Part 1 — Solomon's reign (chapters 1–11)

The succession (1). David is old and cannot keep warm. His son Adonijah, backed by Joab and the priest Abiathar, proclaims himself king at a feast. Nathan and Bathsheba remind David of his oath that Solomon would reign. David orders Solomon anointed at Gihon by Zadok the priest; the trumpet sounds: "God save king Solomon." Adonijah's guests flee.

David's charge and death (2). "Be thou strong… and shew thyself a man; and keep the charge of the Lord thy God." David dies after forty years. Solomon secures his throne: Adonijah, Joab and Shimei are executed, and Abiathar is banished to Anathoth.

The gift of wisdom (3). At Gibeon the Lord appears to Solomon in a dream: "Ask what I shall give thee." Solomon asks for "an understanding heart to judge thy people." God grants it, with riches and honour besides. Two women claim the same baby; Solomon calls for a sword to divide the child, and the true mother gives way to save his life.

Peace and wisdom (4). Judah and Israel are "many, as the sand which is by the sea," and live safely, "every man under his vine and under his fig tree." Solomon's wisdom exceeds all the East; he speaks three thousand proverbs and 1,005 songs.

Building the temple (5–7). Hiram of Tyre supplies cedar and cypress; huge levies of workers cut and haul stone. In Solomon's fourth year, "in the four hundred and eightieth year" after the Exodus, building begins. Stones are dressed at the quarry so no hammer is heard on site. The interior is cedar overlaid with gold, carved with cherubim, palms and flowers; bronze pillars named Jachin and Boaz stand at the porch, with the great bronze Sea. The temple takes seven years, Solomon's own palace thirteen.

The dedication (8). The priests bring the Ark into the Most Holy Place, under the cherubim's wings. A cloud fills the house, "for the glory of the Lord had filled the house." Solomon prays with hands spread towards heaven: "The heaven and heaven of heavens cannot contain thee; how much less this house." He asks God to hear prayer made towards this place — in defeat, drought, famine, and even exile — and to forgive.

God's answer (9). The Lord appears again. If Solomon walks in integrity, his throne will stand; if Israel turns to other gods, the temple will become "a heap" and a byword among the nations.

Splendour and the Queen of Sheba (9–10). Solomon builds cities, chariot towns and a fleet. The Queen of Sheba comes with spices, gold and stones to test him with hard questions. Overwhelmed, she says, "The half was not told me." Silver becomes as common as stones in Jerusalem, and Solomon sits on a great ivory throne overlaid with gold.

Solomon's fall (11). Solomon loves many foreign women — seven hundred wives and three hundred concubines — and in old age "his wives turned away his heart after other gods." He builds high places for Chemosh and Molech. God raises adversaries: Hadad of Edom, Rezon of Damascus, and Jeroboam son of Nebat. The prophet Ahijah tears his new cloak into twelve pieces and gives Jeroboam ten: ten tribes will be his, one kept for David's sake. Solomon dies after forty years.

Part 2 — The divided kingdom (chapters 12–16)

Rehoboam at Shechem (12:1–24). The people ask Solomon's son Rehoboam to lighten their burdens. He rejects the elders' counsel and follows his young friends: "My little finger shall be thicker than my father's loins." The northern tribes cry, "To your tents, O Israel," and make Jeroboam king. Only Judah and Benjamin remain with David's house.

Jeroboam's calves (12:25–33). To stop his people going up to Jerusalem, Jeroboam sets golden calves at Bethel and Dan — "behold thy gods, O Israel" — with new priests and feasts. "The sin of Jeroboam" becomes the yardstick for every northern king.

The man of God from Judah (13). A prophet cries against the altar at Bethel and foretells a king named Josiah. Jeroboam's outstretched hand withers and the altar splits. Deceived by an old prophet into disobeying God's command not to eat there, the man of God is killed by a lion on his way home.

Kings of Judah and Israel (14–16). Ahijah foretells the end of Jeroboam's house. In Judah, Rehoboam's reign sees idolatry and an Egyptian raid by Shishak; Abijam follows; Asa reforms worship and removes idols. In Israel, dynasties fall by assassination: Nadab, Baasha, Elah, Zimri (seven days), then Omri, who builds Samaria as his capital. Omri's son Ahab marries Jezebel of Sidon, builds a temple to Baal in Samaria, and "did more to provoke the Lord God of Israel to anger than all the kings of Israel that were before him." Jericho is rebuilt at the cost foretold by Joshua.

Part 3 — Elijah and Ahab (chapters 17–22)

Drought and ravens (17:1–7). Elijah the Tishbite announces to Ahab that there will be no dew nor rain "but according to my word." He hides by the brook Cherith, where ravens bring him bread and meat.

The widow of Zarephath (17:8–24). In Sidonian territory, Baal's home ground, a widow shares her last flour and oil; "the barrel of meal wasted not, neither did the cruse of oil fail." When her son dies, Elijah stretches himself on the boy three times and he revives.

Mount Carmel (18). In the third year Elijah meets Obadiah, Ahab's God-fearing steward, then Ahab, "he that troubleth Israel." On Carmel he challenges the people: "How long halt ye between two opinions?" The 450 prophets of Baal call from morning until evening, limping around their altar and cutting themselves, while Elijah mocks. He rebuilds the Lord's altar with twelve stones, drenches it with water, and prays. Fire falls and consumes sacrifice, wood, stones and water. The people cry, "The Lord, he is the God." The prophets of Baal are killed at the brook Kishon.

The rain (18:41–46). Elijah prays seven times until "a little cloud out of the sea, like a man's hand" appears. A great storm breaks, and Elijah runs ahead of Ahab's chariot to Jezreel.

Despair and the still small voice (19). Jezebel vows to kill him. Elijah flees to the wilderness and asks to die under a juniper (broom) tree. An angel feeds him twice, and he travels forty days to Horeb. There the Lord passes by: not in wind, earthquake or fire, but in "a still small voice." Elijah is told he is not alone — seven thousand have not bowed to Baal — and is sent to anoint Hazael, Jehu and Elisha. He finds Elisha ploughing with twelve yoke of oxen and throws his mantle over him.

Wars with Aram (20). Ahab twice defeats Ben-hadad of Aram with prophetic help, but then spares him and makes a treaty, and a prophet condemns him.

Naboth's vineyard (21). Ahab covets Naboth's vineyard in Jezreel. Naboth refuses to sell "the inheritance of my fathers." Jezebel arranges false witnesses and Naboth is stoned. Elijah confronts Ahab: "Hast thou found me, O mine enemy?" Dogs will lick Ahab's blood where they licked Naboth's, and dogs will eat Jezebel. Ahab humbles himself in sackcloth, and the disaster is postponed to his son's days.

Micaiah and Ahab's death (22). Ahab and Jehoshaphat of Judah plan to retake Ramoth-gilead. Four hundred prophets promise victory; Micaiah son of Imlah sees "all Israel scattered upon the hills, as sheep that have not a shepherd," and a lying spirit in the prophets' mouths. Ahab jails him and rides out disguised. "A certain man drew a bow at a venture" and strikes Ahab between the joints of his armour. He dies propped in his chariot; dogs lick his blood at Samaria. The book closes with Jehoshaphat's faithful reign in Judah and Ahaziah's Baal worship in Israel.

Key themes, and the bridge to 2 Kings

• Faithfulness and the covenant. Kings are measured by loyalty to the Lord; blessing and disaster follow Deuteronomy's pattern.
• The temple and the name. God's presence fills the temple, yet "the heaven of heavens cannot contain" him; Solomon's prayer anticipates exile and forgiveness.
• Wisdom is not enough. The wisest king is undone by a divided heart.
• One God or many. The contest on Carmel crystallises the book's question: will Israel serve the Lord or Baal?
• The prophetic word. Prophets — Nathan, Ahijah, the man of God, Elijah, Micaiah — confront kings, and their words come true.

1 Kings ends mid-story: Ahab is dead, his son serves Baal, and judgement on his house is pending. Elijah is still alive with Elisha at his side. 2 Kings continues seamlessly, opening with Ahaziah's fall, Elijah's departure in a chariot of fire, and Elisha taking up his mantle.

Overview

2 Kings continues the story of 1 Kings without a break; in the Hebrew Bible the two form a single book. It follows the divided kingdoms of Israel (north, capital Samaria) and Judah (south, capital Jerusalem) from about 850 BC to the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BC, closing with a note from about 561 BC in Babylon. Each king is judged by one standard: did he do what was right in the eyes of the LORD, or did he walk in the sins of Jeroboam and the ways of Ahab?

The book is usually counted among the Former Prophets, and many scholars see it as part of a "Deuteronomistic History" stretching from Joshua to Kings, compiled during or after the exile. The writer points readers to fuller sources such as "the book of the chronicles of the kings of Israel" and "of Judah".

Structure: Part 1 the ministry of Elisha (chapters 1–8); Part 2 Jehu's revolt and the kings who followed (9–17), ending with the fall of Samaria; Part 3 Judah alone, from Hezekiah to the exile (18–25).

Part 1 — Elijah's Departure and Elisha's Ministry (chapters 1–8)

Ahaziah and the fire from heaven (1). Ahab's son Ahaziah falls through a lattice in Samaria and sends to ask Baal-zebub, god of Ekron, if he will recover. Elijah intercepts the messengers: "Is it not because there is not a God in Israel?" Fire from heaven consumes two companies of soldiers sent to arrest him; the third captain begs for mercy. Ahaziah dies as Elijah foretold.

Elijah taken up (2). Elisha refuses to leave his master at Gilgal, Bethel and Jericho. Elijah parts the Jordan with his cloak, and Elisha asks for "a double portion of thy spirit". A chariot and horses of fire separate them, and "Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven." Elisha takes up the fallen cloak, parts the Jordan himself, heals Jericho's spring with salt, and is mocked by youths at Bethel.

War with Moab (3). Joram of Israel, Jehoshaphat of Judah and the king of Edom march on Moab. Elisha promises water without rain; ditches fill overnight, and the Moabites mistake the red-tinged water for blood. Moab's king sacrifices his son on the wall, and the allies withdraw.

Miracles of provision and life (4). A prophet's widow pours a single flask of oil into borrowed jars until all are full, and pays her debts. A wealthy woman of Shunem builds Elisha a rooftop room; God gives her a son, who later dies. Elisha stretches himself over the boy, who sneezes seven times and wakes. Elisha also neutralises poisoned stew and feeds a hundred men with twenty loaves.

Naaman (5). Naaman, commander of Aram's army, has leprosy. A captive Israelite girl points him to the prophet in Samaria. Elisha does not even come out; he tells Naaman to wash seven times in the Jordan. Angry, then persuaded by his servants, Naaman obeys and is healed: "Now I know that there is no God in all the earth, but in Israel." Elisha's servant Gehazi greedily takes Naaman's gifts and receives his leprosy.

Dothan and the siege of Samaria (6–7). An axe head floats. When Aram surrounds Dothan, Elisha's servant sees the hills "full of horses and chariots of fire". The raiders are struck blind, led into Samaria, fed and released. Later Ben-hadad besieges Samaria, causing horrific famine. Elisha promises plenty within a day; four lepers find the Aramean camp deserted, because the LORD made them hear the sound of a great army.

Hazael and Judah's slide (8). The Shunammite's land is restored. In Damascus Elisha weeps before Hazael, foreseeing his cruelty to Israel; Hazael smothers Ben-hadad and takes the throne. In Judah, Jehoram marries Ahab's daughter Athaliah and walks in Ahab's ways.

Part 2 — Jehu, Joash and the Fall of Samaria (chapters 9–17)

Jehu's revolt (9–10). A young prophet anoints the commander Jehu king to destroy Ahab's house. Jehu "drives furiously" to Jezreel, kills Joram of Israel and Ahaziah of Judah, and has Jezebel thrown from a window, fulfilling Elijah's word. He kills Ahab's seventy sons and lures Baal's worshippers into their temple to be destroyed. Yet he keeps Jeroboam's golden calves at Bethel and Dan, and the LORD begins to cut Israel's territory short.

Athaliah and Joash (11–12). Athaliah murders the royal family of Judah and rules six years. Her infant grandson Joash is hidden in the temple by his aunt Jehosheba. In the seventh year the priest Jehoiada arms the guards, crowns the boy and has Athaliah executed; the covenant is renewed and Baal's temple torn down. Joash repairs the temple with a collection chest beside the altar, but later strips its treasures to buy off Hazael and is assassinated.

Elisha's death (13). Israel is oppressed by Aram under Jehoahaz. The dying Elisha has King Jehoash shoot "the arrow of the LORD's deliverance" and strike the ground, but he strikes only three times, so he will win only three victories. A corpse thrown into Elisha's grave revives on touching his bones.

Kings of the eighth century (14–16). Amaziah of Judah defeats Edom but is beaten by Israel. Jeroboam II restores Israel's borders "according to the word of the LORD… by Jonah the son of Amittai". Azariah (Uzziah) of Judah reigns 52 years but becomes leprous. Israel collapses into coups: Zechariah, Shallum, Menahem, Pekahiah and Pekah. Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria takes Galilee and deports its people. Ahaz of Judah sacrifices his son, buys Assyrian help against Aram and Israel, and installs a copy of a Damascus altar in the temple.

The fall of Samaria (17). Hoshea withholds tribute and seeks Egypt's help. Shalmaneser V besieges Samaria for three years; in 722 BC it falls and Israel is deported to Assyria and Media. The writer explains why: Israel feared other gods, worshipped "upon every high hill, and under every green tree", made the calves and Baal images, and rejected the prophets. Foreign settlers in Samaria "feared the LORD, and served their own gods", the origin of a mixed population later known as the Samaritans.

Part 3 — Judah Alone: Hezekiah to the Exile (chapters 18–25)

Hezekiah's reform (18). Hezekiah removes the high places and breaks Moses' bronze serpent, now called Nehushtan. "He trusted in the LORD God of Israel; so that after him was none like him among all the kings of Judah."

Sennacherib's threat (18–19). In 701 BC Sennacherib takes Judah's fortified cities. His field commander (the Rabshakeh) taunts Jerusalem's defenders in Hebrew: no god has saved any nation from Assyria. Hezekiah spreads Sennacherib's letter before the LORD and prays. Isaiah answers that the king will not enter the city or shoot an arrow there. That night the angel of the LORD strikes 185,000 Assyrians; Sennacherib returns to Nineveh and is later killed by his sons.

Illness and envoys (20). Hezekiah is told he will die. He prays and weeps: "I have heard thy prayer, I have seen thy tears." Fifteen years are added, confirmed by the shadow going back ten steps. But he shows envoys from Babylon all his treasures, and Isaiah foretells that everything, and some of his descendants, will be carried to Babylon.

Manasseh and Amon (21). Manasseh reigns 55 years, the longest and worst reign. He rebuilds the high places, sets altars for the stars in the temple courts, places an Asherah pole in the temple, practises sorcery, burns his son, and fills Jerusalem with innocent blood. The LORD declares he will "wipe Jerusalem as a man wipeth a dish". His son Amon follows him and is assassinated.

Josiah's reform (22–23). Josiah becomes king at eight. During temple repairs the high priest Hilkiah finds "the book of the law". Josiah tears his clothes; the prophetess Huldah confirms coming judgment but spares Josiah because his heart was tender. He reads the covenant to the people, purges idols from the temple and land, defiles Topheth, destroys the Bethel altar as a prophet had foretold three centuries earlier, and keeps an unmatched Passover. "Like unto him was there no king before him." Yet the LORD's anger over Manasseh does not turn. Josiah dies at Megiddo confronting Pharaoh Neco (609 BC).

The last kings (23–24). Egypt deposes Jehoahaz and installs Jehoiakim, who later submits to Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon and then rebels. In 597 BC his son Jehoiachin surrenders; Babylon carries off the king, the temple treasures and ten thousand leaders and craftsmen. Nebuchadnezzar makes Zedekiah king.

The fall of Jerusalem (25). Zedekiah rebels. After a siege from 588 to 586 BC, famine grips the city and the wall is breached. Zedekiah flees by night, is caught near Jericho, sees his sons executed, and is blinded and taken to Babylon. Nebuzaradan burns the temple, the palace and the great houses, breaks down the walls and carries off the bronze pillars and sea. Gedaliah, the appointed governor at Mizpah, is murdered by Ishmael, and the remaining people flee to Egypt.

Jehoiachin released (25:27–30). In the 37th year of exile, Evil-merodach of Babylon frees Jehoiachin from prison, speaks kindly to him and gives him a seat at the king's table for the rest of his life.

Key themes, and the bridge to 1 Chronicles

• The prophetic word comes true. Elijah's, Elisha's, Isaiah's and Huldah's words are fulfilled exactly; history unfolds "according to the word of the LORD".
• Covenant faithfulness decides the nation's fate. Exile is presented as the outcome the law of Moses warned of, after long patience and many prophets.
• Reform is real but not enough. Hezekiah and Josiah are the best kings, yet Manasseh's legacy and the people's hearts bring the end.
• God's power beyond Israel. Naaman the Aramean is healed; Assyria and Babylon are instruments in God's hand.
• A lamp for David. Despite everything, David's line survives in exile.

2 Kings ends in ruin, with Jerusalem burned and its people scattered, but with David's heir alive and eating at a king's table, a quiet hint that the promise is not dead. 1 Chronicles goes back to the beginning, to Adam, and retells Israel's story for the returning exiles, centred on David, the temple and true worship.

Overview

1 and 2 Chronicles were originally one book, called in Hebrew "the words of the days". They retell Israel's history from Adam to the decree of Cyrus, written after the exile for a community rebuilding its life around the second temple in Jerusalem. Jewish tradition linked the work to Ezra; many scholars date it to the fourth century BC and speak simply of "the Chronicler". Its sources include Samuel and Kings, which it often quotes, along with genealogical records and prophetic writings it names.

Chronicles is not a copy of Samuel–Kings. It leaves out much (David's sin with Bathsheba, Absalom's revolt, the northern kingdom's story) and adds much (genealogies, lists of Levites, singers and gatekeepers, David's preparations for the temple). Its questions are those of the returned exiles: Are we still God's people? Does the promise to David still stand? How should we worship?

Structure: Part 1 genealogies from Adam to the returned exiles (chapters 1–9); Part 2 David's reign: becoming king, bringing up the ark, God's covenant and David's wars (10–21); Part 3 David's preparations for the temple and the handover to Solomon (22–29).

Part 1 — The Family of Israel (chapters 1–9)

From Adam to Israel (1). The book opens with a bare list: "Adam, Sheth, Enosh". It runs through Noah's sons and the nations, to Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Esau and Edom's kings. Israel is set within the whole human family.

Judah and David (2–4). Israel's twelve sons are named, and Judah's line comes first and longest, because from it comes David (2:15) and his royal descendants down to the exile and beyond (3). In the middle of the lists stands Jabez, who "called on the God of Israel, saying, Oh that thou wouldest bless me indeed, and enlarge my coast… And God granted him that which he requested" (4:10). Simeon follows.

The eastern tribes and Levi (5–6). Reuben, Gad and half of Manasseh beyond the Jordan won battles when "they cried to God in the battle", but were exiled by Assyria for unfaithfulness. Levi's genealogy is detailed: the high priests from Aaron to the exile, and the singers Heman, Asaph and Ethan whom David set over the music "after that the ark had rest". The Levites' cities are listed.

The remaining tribes and Saul (7–8). Issachar, Benjamin, Naphtali, Manasseh, Ephraim and Asher follow, then a fuller list of Benjamin, which leads to the family of Saul.

The returned community (9). "All Israel were reckoned by genealogies… Judah were carried away to Babylon for their transgression." The first to resettle Jerusalem are named: laymen, priests, Levites, and gatekeepers who guarded the house of God and kept its holy vessels, bread and spices. Saul's line is repeated to lead into the story.

Part 2 — David's Reign (chapters 10–21)

Saul's end (10). Saul and his sons die on Mount Gilboa. The Chronicler explains: Saul "died for his transgression… against the word of the LORD", and consulted a medium "and enquired not of the LORD: therefore he slew him, and turned the kingdom unto David."

King at Hebron, Jerusalem taken (11). All Israel comes to Hebron: "We are thy bone and thy flesh." David is anointed, and Joab leads the capture of Zion, the city of David. "David waxed greater and greater: for the LORD of hosts was with him." His mighty men are listed; three break through to Bethlehem's well for water, and David pours it out to the LORD rather than drink "the blood of these men".

The army gathers (12). Warriors join David at Ziklag and at the stronghold, from every tribe, until it is "a great host, like the host of God". The spirit comes on Amasai: "Thine are we, David." The men of Issachar "had understanding of the times, to know what Israel ought to do."

The ark, first attempt (13). David's first act is to bring back the ark, neglected under Saul. It travels on a new cart; when the oxen stumble Uzza touches it and dies. The ark stays three months with Obed-edom, whose house is blessed.

David established (14). Hiram of Tyre sends cedar and craftsmen; David defeats the Philistines twice after asking God, and "the fear of him" falls on the nations.

The ark brought up properly (15–16). David prepares a place and rules that "none ought to carry the ark of God but the Levites". Priests and Levites consecrate themselves; singers with harps, lyres, cymbals and trumpets lead the procession, and David dances. The ark is placed in a tent in Jerusalem, while the tabernacle and altar stay at Gibeon. David appoints Asaph and his brothers to give thanks continually, and a psalm (drawn from Psalms 105, 96 and 106) is sung: "O give thanks unto the LORD; for he is good; for his mercy endureth for ever."

God's covenant with David (17). David wants to build a house for the ark. Through Nathan God says no: "I will build thee an house", and David's son will build the temple, and "I will settle him in mine house and in my kingdom for ever." David sits before the LORD in humble wonder: "Who am I, O LORD God?"

David's wars (18–20). David defeats the Philistines, Moab, Zobah, Damascus, Edom and the Ammonites, and dedicates the plunder to the LORD; its bronze later becomes the temple's sea and pillars. Philistine giants, including Goliath's brother, are killed by David's men. (The Bathsheba episode is not told.)

The census and the threshing floor (21). "Satan stood up against Israel, and provoked David to number Israel." Joab objects; David insists. God sends a plague, and David sees the angel of the LORD standing between earth and heaven with a drawn sword over Jerusalem. David pleads, "Let thine hand… be on me… but not on thy people." At the prophet Gad's word he buys the threshing floor of Ornan the Jebusite at full price, "for I will not… offer burnt offerings without cost." He builds an altar; the LORD answers by fire from heaven, and the angel sheathes his sword.

Part 3 — Preparing for the Temple (chapters 22–29)

The site and the materials (22). David declares, "This is the house of the LORD God", identifying the threshing floor as the temple site (2 Chronicles 3:1 names it Mount Moriah). He gathers stonecutters, iron for nails, bronze "without weight" and cedar, "for the house that is to be builded for the LORD must be exceeding magnifical". He tells Solomon that he himself had shed much blood, while Solomon (whose name echoes shalom) will be a man of rest. "Arise therefore, and build."

The Levites (23). David, old and making Solomon king, numbers the Levites from age thirty: 38,000. They are assigned to the temple work, as officers and judges, gatekeepers and musicians. Since the ark no longer needs carrying, their duties shift to the courts, chambers, showbread and offerings, and to stand "every morning to thank and praise the LORD, and likewise at even".

The priests (24). Aaron's descendants through Eleazar and Ithamar are divided by lot into twenty-four courses, so that each family serves in turn. (Luke 1 later mentions Zechariah serving in "the course of Abijah", the eighth.)

The musicians (25). The sons of Asaph, Heman and Jeduthun are set apart "who should prophesy with harps, with psalteries, and with cymbals". There are 288 trained singers in twenty-four courses, assigned by lot, "as well the small as the great, the teacher as the scholar".

Gatekeepers, treasurers and officials (26–27). Gatekeepers are assigned to the four sides of the temple by lot; others oversee the treasuries of dedicated gifts. The twelve monthly army divisions, tribal leaders and royal stewards are listed.

The plan handed over (28). Before Israel's leaders David explains that God chose Judah, his family and Solomon. He gives Solomon the pattern for the porch, the houses, the treasuries, the inner chambers and the place of the mercy seat, with the weight of gold and silver for every vessel: "All this… the LORD made me understand in writing by his hand upon me." Then the charge: "Be strong and of good courage, and do it: fear not, nor be dismayed… he will not fail thee, nor forsake thee."

The people give (29). David gives his personal treasure of gold and silver; the leaders follow, and "the people rejoiced, for that they offered willingly… with perfect heart." David blesses God before the assembly: "Thine, O LORD, is the greatness, and the power, and the glory… for all that is in the heaven and in the earth is thine… All things come of thee, and of thine own have we given thee." Solomon is anointed a second time and sits on "the throne of the LORD"; all Israel and David's other sons submit. David dies "in a good old age, full of days, riches, and honour".

Key themes, and the bridge to 2 Chronicles

• Continuity of the people. The genealogies tie the returned exiles to Adam, Abraham and the twelve tribes: they still belong to "all Israel".
• David and his house. God's promise to build David "a house" for ever is central, and it gives hope to a people without a king.
• The temple and true worship. David's greatest work in Chronicles is preparation: materials, money, plans and above all people.
• The Levites and music. Priests, singers and gatekeepers are honoured; praise "for his mercy endureth for ever" is the heartbeat of worship.
• Seeking God. Saul fell because he did not seek the LORD; David is the model of one who enquires of God, repents and gives generously.
• Willing generosity. Worship is offered gladly "with perfect heart", acknowledging that everything already belongs to God.

1 Chronicles ends with everything ready except the building itself: the site bought, materials stockpiled, Levites and priests organised, plans handed over, and a new king on the throne. 2 Chronicles opens with Solomon building the temple and follows Judah's kings, measured by whether they seek the LORD, down to the exile and Cyrus's call to return and build again.

Overview

2 Chronicles is the second half of the Chronicler's history. It runs from Solomon's accession (about 970 BC) through the kings of Judah to the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC, and ends with the decree of Cyrus of Persia in 539/538 BC inviting the exiles to go home and rebuild. In the Hebrew Bible Chronicles comes last, so its final words, "let him go up", close the whole Hebrew scriptures.

Unlike Kings, Chronicles follows only Judah after the division; the northern kingdom appears only where it touches Judah. Each king is measured by whether he "sought the LORD": reliance on God brings victory and blessing, while unfaithfulness brings trouble, often within the same reign. Repentance is always possible, even for the worst of them. The temple, its priests and Levites, its music and its festivals stand at the centre.

Structure: Part 1 Solomon and the temple (chapters 1–9); Part 2 Judah's kings from Rehoboam to Ahaz (10–28); Part 3 Hezekiah's reform (29–32); Part 4 Manasseh to the exile and Cyrus's decree (33–36).

Part 1 — Solomon and the Temple (chapters 1–9)

Wisdom at Gibeon (1). Solomon worships at the tabernacle and bronze altar at Gibeon. God appears at night: "Ask what I shall give thee." Solomon asks for "wisdom and knowledge" to govern; God adds riches, wealth and honour.

Building the temple (2–4). Solomon agrees with Huram (Hiram) of Tyre for cedar and a skilled craftsman, Huram-abi. He builds "at Jerusalem in mount Moriah… in the threshingfloor of Ornan" (3:1), linking the site to Abraham and to David. The Most Holy Place is lined with fine gold, with two great cherubim and a veil of blue, purple and crimson. Bronze pillars named Jachin and Boaz, the bronze sea on twelve oxen, ten lampstands and ten tables are made.

The ark and the glory (5). The Levites bring the ark into the inner sanctuary. Priests, singers and 120 trumpeters make "one sound… in praising and thanking the LORD; saying, For he is good; for his mercy endureth for ever". The house fills with a cloud, and the priests cannot stand to minister.

Solomon's prayer (6). Standing, then kneeling, on a bronze platform, Solomon prays: "Behold, heaven and the heaven of heavens cannot contain thee; how much less this house." He asks God to hear prayers toward the temple in every circumstance: sin, defeat, drought, plague, the foreigner who comes, war and even exile.

Fire and the answer (7). Fire comes down from heaven and consumes the offerings; the glory fills the house; the people bow and say, "For he is good." God appears to Solomon at night with the book's key promise: "If my people, which are called by my name, shall humble themselves, and pray, and seek my face, and turn from their wicked ways; then will I hear from heaven, and will forgive their sin, and will heal their land" (7:14). A warning follows for those who forsake him.

Splendour (8–9). Solomon builds cities, organises the priests and Levites as David ordered, and trades by sea. The Queen of Sheba tests him and declares, "the one half of the greatness of thy wisdom was not told me." Silver is as common as stones. Chronicles does not tell of Solomon's foreign wives or idolatry. He reigns forty years.

Part 2 — Judah's Kings, Rehoboam to Ahaz (chapters 10–28)

Rehoboam (10–12). Rehoboam's harsh answer splits the kingdom; the northern tribes follow Jeroboam. Priests and Levites expelled by Jeroboam come to Judah, strengthening it. When Rehoboam forsakes the law, Shishak of Egypt invades. Shemaiah says, "Ye have forsaken me, and therefore have I also left you", and when the leaders humble themselves God grants "some deliverance".

Abijah (13). On Mount Zemaraim, outnumbered two to one, Abijah appeals to Israel: they have golden calves, but Judah has the LORD's priests. Surrounded, Judah cries out, the priests sound trumpets, and God routs Jeroboam.

Asa (14–16). Asa removes foreign altars and fortifies Judah. Facing Zerah the Cushite's huge army he prays, "Help us, O LORD our God; for we rest on thee", and wins. The prophet Azariah says, "The LORD is with you, while ye be with him; and if ye seek him, he will be found of you", and Judah swears a covenant with joy. But late in his reign Asa bribes Ben-hadad of Aram against Israel. The seer Hanani rebukes him: "The eyes of the LORD run to and fro throughout the whole earth, to shew himself strong in the behalf of them whose heart is perfect toward him." Asa jails Hanani, and in his final illness seeks only physicians.

Jehoshaphat (17–20). Jehoshaphat sends officials, Levites and priests to teach "the book of the law of the LORD" in all Judah's cities, and appoints judges: "Take heed… for there is no iniquity with the LORD our God." His alliance with Ahab nearly kills him at Ramoth-gilead, where Micaiah prophesies truthfully against 400 prophets. When Moab, Ammon and Edom invade, he proclaims a fast and prays, "we know not what to do: but our eyes are upon thee." Jahaziel the Levite answers, "the battle is not yours, but God's." Singers march ahead of the army praising "the beauty of holiness"; the invaders destroy one another, and the place is named the Valley of Berachah (Blessing).

Jehoram, Ahaziah and Athaliah (21–23). Jehoram murders his brothers and follows Ahab's ways; a letter from Elijah announces judgment, and he dies of a painful bowel disease, "without being desired". After Ahaziah's death, Athaliah seizes power and kills the royal family; Joash is hidden in the temple six years. The priest Jehoiada crowns him, Athaliah is executed, and Baal's temple is destroyed.

Joash (24). Joash restores the temple with a collection chest while Jehoiada lives; the priest is buried among the kings. Afterwards Joash and the leaders turn to Asherah poles. When Jehoiada's son Zechariah warns them, he is stoned in the temple court at the king's command: "The LORD look upon it, and require it." Aram defeats Judah, and Joash is assassinated.

Amaziah and Uzziah (25–26). Amaziah obeys a prophet and sends home hired Israelite troops, then worships Edom's gods and is defeated by Israel. Uzziah seeks God in the days of Zechariah the seer and prospers: towers, cisterns, an army, inventive war machines, and a love of farming. "But when he was strong, his heart was lifted up." He enters the temple to burn incense; Azariah and eighty priests resist him, and leprosy breaks out on his forehead. He lives isolated till his death.

Jotham and Ahaz (27–28). Jotham "prepared his ways before the LORD". Ahaz makes Baal images and burns his sons. Aram and Israel defeat him; Israel takes 200,000 captives, but the prophet Oded rebukes them, and Ephraimite leaders clothe, feed and anoint the captives and return them to Jericho. Ahaz turns to Assyria, which "distressed him, but strengthened him not". He sacrifices to Damascus's gods, cuts up the temple vessels, and shuts the doors of the house of the LORD.

Part 3 — Hezekiah's Reform (chapters 29–32)

The temple reopened (29). In his first month Hezekiah opens and repairs the temple doors and tells the Levites, "My sons, be not now negligent." They cleanse the temple in sixteen days. At the rededication, "when the burnt offering began, the song of the LORD began also with the trumpets", with David's instruments and the words of David and Asaph. "Hezekiah rejoiced… for the thing was done suddenly."

The great Passover (30). Hezekiah sends couriers "from Beersheba even to Dan", calling the remnant of the north to Passover: "turn again unto the LORD… and he will return to the remnant of you." Many mock, but some from Asher, Manasseh and Zebulun come. Many are ritually unclean, and Hezekiah prays, "The good LORD pardon every one that prepareth his heart to seek God." The LORD heals the people. The feast is extended to fourteen days: "since the time of Solomon… there was not the like in Jerusalem."

Provision for worship (31). Idols are smashed across Judah and even in Ephraim and Manasseh. Tithes pour in, heaped up for four months, and storerooms are prepared. "In every work that he began… he did it with all his heart, and prospered."

Sennacherib (32). Assyria invades. Hezekiah stops the springs, repairs the wall and encourages the people: "With him is an arm of flesh; but with us is the LORD our God to help us, and to fight our battles." Hezekiah and Isaiah pray, and an angel cuts off the Assyrian army; Sennacherib returns in shame and is killed by his sons. Hezekiah's illness, a moment of pride and his humbling are briefly told; he builds the Siloam tunnel.

Part 4 — Manasseh to the Exile (chapters 33–36)

Manasseh's fall and repentance (33). Manasseh rebuilds the high places, worships the stars in the temple courts, burns his sons in the Valley of Hinnom and practises sorcery, leading Judah to do "worse than the heathen". God sends Assyria's army, who take him "with hooks", bind him in bronze chains and carry him to Babylon. This episode is told only in Chronicles. "When he was in affliction, he besought the LORD his God, and humbled himself greatly." God hears and restores him: "Then Manasseh knew that the LORD he was God." He removes the foreign gods and restores the altar. His son Amon does evil and is assassinated.

Josiah's search and the Book of the Law (34). At sixteen, Josiah "began to seek after the God of David"; at twenty he purges Judah, Jerusalem and the northern towns. During temple repairs Hilkiah finds "a book of the law of the LORD given by Moses". Josiah tears his clothes; Huldah the prophetess confirms judgment but promises him peace. He reads the covenant to all the people and makes them pledge to keep it.

The Passover (35). Josiah tells the Levites to place the ark in the temple and serve. He gives 30,000 lambs and kids and 3,000 bulls from his own flocks; priests, Levites, singers and gatekeepers all take their places. "There was no passover like to that kept in Israel from the days of Samuel the prophet."

Josiah's death (35). Pharaoh Neco, marching to Carchemish, warns Josiah that God has sent him and urges him not to interfere. Josiah disguises himself and fights at Megiddo; archers wound him, and he dies in Jerusalem. Jeremiah laments for him, and the laments are still sung.

The end of the kingdom (36). Jehoahaz is deposed by Egypt; Jehoiakim and Jehoiachin are taken to Babylon; Zedekiah "humbled not himself before Jeremiah the prophet". God sent messengers "rising up betimes", because "he had compassion on his people", but "they mocked the messengers of God… until the wrath of the LORD arose against his people, till there was no remedy." The Babylonians kill young and old, burn the house of God, break down the wall and take the survivors to Babylon. The land lies desolate "to fulfil the word of the LORD by the mouth of Jeremiah, until the land had enjoyed her sabbaths… to fulfil threescore and ten years."

Cyrus's decree (36:22–23). "The LORD stirred up the spirit of Cyrus king of Persia." He proclaims that the God of heaven has given him all the kingdoms of the earth and charged him to build a house at Jerusalem: "Who is there among you of all his people? The LORD his God be with him, and let him go up."

Key themes, and the bridge to Ezra

• Seek the LORD. Kings who seek God prosper; those who forsake him fall. 7:14 is the book's charter.
• Repentance and mercy. Rehoboam, Hezekiah's Passover guests and above all Manasseh show that humbling oneself before God is always met with grace.
• Temple and worship. The temple's building, cleansing and festivals mark the high points; Levites and singers are honoured, and praise often goes before victory.
• Prophets as God's patience. Prophets warn king after king. The exile comes only when "there was no remedy".
• Hope beyond judgment. The exile is a sabbath rest for the land, lasting seventy years, not the end.

2 Chronicles closes with an open invitation rather than a ruin: the temple lies burned, but a Persian king calls God's people to "go up" and build it again. Ezra begins with the very same decree, word for word, and tells the story of those who answered it.

Overview

Ezra tells how Jewish exiles returned from Babylon to Judah under Persian rule and rebuilt the temple and community in Jerusalem. It opens with the decree of Cyrus in 538 BC, repeating the last words of 2 Chronicles, and closes in about 458 BC. In the Hebrew Bible Ezra and Nehemiah were counted as one book. Tradition credits Ezra with the work, and many scholars see it as part of the same broad tradition as Chronicles. Parts are written in Aramaic (4:8–6:18 and 7:12–26), the official language of the Persian empire, quoting royal letters and decrees.

The book has two halves separated by about sixty years. The first (chapters 1–6) covers the first return under Sheshbazzar, Zerubbabel and Jeshua, and the rebuilding of the temple, finished in 516 BC. The second (7–10) follows Ezra the priest and scribe, who comes from Babylon in the seventh year of Artaxerxes (458 BC) to teach the law, and confronts a crisis of intermarriage. The precise order of some Persian kings and letters in chapter 4 is debated; the writer groups opposition thematically rather than strictly by date.

Structure: Part 1 the first return and the altar (chapters 1–3); Part 2 opposition and the finished temple (4–6); Part 3 Ezra's journey (7–8); Part 4 Ezra's prayer and the people's response (9–10).

Part 1 — The First Return (chapters 1–3)

Cyrus's decree (1). "In the first year of Cyrus king of Persia, that the word of the LORD by the mouth of Jeremiah might be fulfilled, the LORD stirred up the spirit of Cyrus." The king proclaims that the God of heaven has charged him to build a house at Jerusalem, and that any of God's people may go up, helped by their neighbours with silver, gold, goods and livestock. Cyrus returns the temple vessels Nebuchadnezzar had taken; his treasurer Mithredath counts 5,400 gold and silver articles to Sheshbazzar, "the prince of Judah".

The returnees (2). A long list names those who came back, led by Zerubbabel (a descendant of David) and Jeshua the high priest: families by clan and town, priests, Levites, 128 singers of Asaph's line, gatekeepers and temple servants. Some priests cannot prove their descent and are barred from the priesthood until a priest with Urim and Thummim arises. The whole assembly numbers 42,360, with 7,337 servants and 200 singers, horses, mules, camels and donkeys. Family heads give freewill offerings for the house of God.

The altar and the foundation (3). In the seventh month the people gather "as one man" in Jerusalem. "Fear was upon them because of the people of those countries", yet Jeshua and Zerubbabel rebuild the altar on its old base and restore the daily burnt offerings and the Feast of Tabernacles. In the second year they lay the foundation of the temple, using cedar from Lebanon as Solomon had. Priests with trumpets and Levites with cymbals praise God "after the ordinance of David": "For he is good, for his mercy endureth for ever toward Israel." The people shout for joy, but many older priests and leaders who had seen the first house weep aloud, "so that the people could not discern the noise of the shout of joy from the noise of the weeping."

Part 2 — Opposition and the Finished Temple (chapters 4–6)

Help refused, work hindered (4:1–5). "The adversaries of Judah and Benjamin" offer to help: "we seek your God, as ye do." Zerubbabel and Jeshua refuse, citing Cyrus's commission. The people of the land then discourage and frighten the builders and hire counsellors against them "all the days of Cyrus… even until the reign of Darius".

Letters to Persian kings (4:6–24). The writer gathers later examples of opposition. Under Xerxes (Ahasuerus) an accusation is lodged; under Artaxerxes, Rehum and Shimshai write that Jerusalem is "the rebellious and the bad city", and that if its walls are finished it will stop paying taxes. Artaxerxes finds that Jerusalem had rebelled in the past and orders the work stopped, and it is halted "by force and power". The narrative then returns to the temple: the work ceased until the second year of Darius (520 BC).

The prophets stir the builders (5). Haggai and Zechariah prophesy, and Zerubbabel and Jeshua begin again, "and with them were the prophets of God helping them." Tattenai, governor of the province Beyond the River, asks who authorised the building, but "the eye of their God was upon the elders of the Jews", so the work is not stopped while he writes to Darius. The elders' reply is quoted: they are "the servants of the God of heaven and earth", rebuilding the house destroyed because their fathers had provoked God, under Cyrus's decree.

Darius confirms the decree (6:1–12). A search finds a scroll in the citadel of Ecbatana in Media recording Cyrus's decree, even with the temple's dimensions and the order that costs be paid from the royal treasury. Darius tells Tattenai to leave the work alone, to fund it from the taxes of the province, and to supply animals, wheat, salt, wine and oil for sacrifices, "that they may… pray for the life of the king, and of his sons". Anyone who alters the edict is to be impaled on a beam from his own house.

Dedication and Passover (6:13–22). The temple is finished on the third of Adar in the sixth year of Darius (516 BC), "according to the commandment of the God of Israel, and according to the commandment of Cyrus, and Darius, and Artaxerxes". It is dedicated with joy: 100 bulls, 200 rams, 400 lambs, and 12 goats as a sin offering "for all Israel, according to the number of the tribes". Priests and Levites are set in their divisions "as it is written in the book of Moses". On the fourteenth of the first month the returned exiles keep the Passover, together with all who had separated themselves from the uncleanness of the nations to seek the LORD, and the Feast of Unleavened Bread for seven days, "for the LORD had made them joyful."

Part 3 — Ezra Comes to Jerusalem (chapters 7–8)

Ezra introduced (7:1–10). "After these things", in the reign of Artaxerxes, Ezra comes up from Babylon. His genealogy runs back to Aaron. He is "a ready scribe in the law of Moses", and "the king granted him all his request, according to the hand of the LORD his God upon him." The key verse: "Ezra had prepared his heart to seek the law of the LORD, and to do it, and to teach in Israel statutes and judgments" (7:10). The journey takes four months.

Artaxerxes' letter (7:11–28). The king's Aramaic decree allows any Israelite, priest or Levite to go with Ezra; sends silver and gold from the king and his counsellors for offerings; orders provincial treasurers to supply Ezra up to set limits; exempts temple staff from taxes; and authorises Ezra to appoint magistrates and judges who know the law of his God, and to teach those who do not. Ezra breaks into praise: "Blessed be the LORD God of our fathers, which hath put such a thing as this in the king's heart, to beautify the house of the LORD."

Gathering at Ahava (8:1–20). The family heads who travel with Ezra are listed. Camped three days by the river Ahava, Ezra finds no Levites and sends to Iddo at Casiphia, who supplies Sherebiah and others, with 220 temple servants.

Fasting and the journey (8:21–36). Ezra proclaims a fast "that we might afflict ourselves before our God, to seek of him a right way for us, and for our little ones." He was "ashamed to require of the king a band of soldiers", having said, "The hand of our God is upon all them for good that seek him." God hears. Ezra weighs out the silver, gold and vessels to twelve leading priests, who guard them on the road; God delivers them "from the hand of the enemy, and of such as lay in wait by the way." In Jerusalem everything is weighed again in the temple and recorded, and the returned exiles offer burnt offerings for all Israel: twelve bulls, ninety-six rams, seventy-seven lambs and twelve goats.

Part 4 — Confession and Covenant (chapters 9–10)

The report (9:1–4). Leaders tell Ezra that many people, including priests, Levites and leaders, have not kept separate from the peoples of the land and their practices, and have taken their daughters as wives, so that "the holy seed have mingled themselves". Ezra tears his garment and mantle, pulls hair from his head and beard and sits "astonied" until the evening sacrifice. "Every one that trembled at the words of the God of Israel" gathers around him.

Ezra's prayer (9:5–15). At the evening sacrifice Ezra kneels and spreads out his hands: "O my God, I am ashamed and blush to lift up my face to thee… for our iniquities are increased over our head." He recalls the guilt that led to exile and the grace now shown: God has left a remnant, given "a nail in his holy place", and "a little reviving in our bondage", and has not forsaken them in Persia. He acknowledges that they have broken the commands against such marriages, given so that they would not be drawn after other gods, and ends without asking for anything: "behold, we are before thee in our trespasses: for we cannot stand before thee because of this."

Shecaniah's proposal (10:1–8). A great assembly of men, women and children gathers, weeping bitterly. Shecaniah son of Jehiel speaks: "We have trespassed against our God… yet now there is hope in Israel concerning this thing." He proposes a covenant to send away the foreign wives and their children "according to the law", and urges Ezra, "Arise… be of good courage, and do it." Ezra has the leaders swear, then fasts and mourns. A proclamation summons all the returned exiles to Jerusalem within three days, on pain of losing their property and being excluded from the assembly.

The assembly in the rain (10:9–17). On the twentieth of the ninth month (December) all the men of Judah and Benjamin sit in the square before the temple, "trembling because of this matter, and for the great rain." Ezra calls them to confess and separate. They agree, though a few oppose, but ask for an orderly process because of the rain and the size of the matter. Leaders and town elders and judges hear each case, finishing within three months.

The list (10:18–44). The book closes with the names of those who had married foreign wives, beginning with members of the high priest Jeshua's own family, then priests, Levites, singers, gatekeepers and laymen. Some had children by these marriages. The book ends there, without further comment.

Key themes, and the bridge to Nehemiah

• God keeps his word. The return fulfils Jeremiah's seventy years; God works through pagan kings, Cyrus, Darius and Artaxerxes, "turning their hearts".
• The hand of God. Repeated phrases such as "the hand of the LORD his God upon him" and "the eye of their God" show God guiding events without dramatic miracles.
• Worship restored. Altar, foundation, temple, festivals and priestly order are re-established "as it is written".
• Opposition and perseverance. Discouragement, accusation and official delay are overcome through prophetic encouragement and patient appeal to the law.
• The word of God at the centre. Ezra the scribe embodies a community shaped by studying, doing and teaching the Torah.
• Holiness and identity. The intermarriage crisis reflects fears of losing the people's distinct faith, as before the exile. Readers have long wrestled with the painful outcome, and the book records it soberly.

Ezra ends abruptly with a list of names: the temple stands and the law is being taught, but the community's faithfulness remains fragile and Jerusalem's walls are still broken. Nehemiah continues the story about thirteen years later, when news of the ruined walls reaches a Jewish cupbearer in the Persian court.

Overview

Nehemiah continues the story of Ezra; in the Hebrew Bible the two were one book. It is written largely in the first person, as Nehemiah's own memoir, with official lists and community records woven in. Nehemiah, a Jewish cupbearer to the Persian king Artaxerxes I, comes to Jerusalem in 445 BC, the king's twentieth year, as governor of Judah. He rebuilds the city walls in fifty-two days against fierce opposition, and with Ezra the scribe leads a renewal of the covenant. The book ends after his second term, around 432 BC.

Nehemiah is a man of action and of prayer: short "arrow prayers" punctuate the story ("So I prayed to the God of heaven", "Remember me, O my God"). The book's movement is from broken walls to a rebuilt city, and from a rebuilt city to a people re-formed by God's law, though the closing chapter shows how quickly that commitment wears thin. Scholars discuss how the memoir and the Ezra material were combined, and the relative dates of Ezra's and Nehemiah's work; the book presents them as contemporaries in chapters 8 and 12.

Structure: Part 1 Nehemiah's call and the rebuilding of the wall (chapters 1–7); Part 2 the law read and the covenant renewed (8–10); Part 3 repopulating and dedicating the city (11–12); Part 4 Nehemiah's second term and reforms (13).

Part 1 — The Wall Rebuilt (chapters 1–7)

News from Jerusalem (1). In the month Chislev, in the citadel of Susa, Nehemiah's brother Hanani arrives from Judah: the survivors are "in great affliction and reproach: the wall of Jerusalem also is broken down, and the gates thereof are burned with fire." Nehemiah sits down and weeps, mourning, fasting and praying for days. His prayer confesses Israel's sin, "both I and my father's house have sinned", and appeals to God's word to Moses: if they scatter for unfaithfulness but return, God will gather them, even from "the uttermost part of the heaven". He asks for favour "in the sight of this man", the king, for "I was the king's cupbearer."

Before the king (2:1–8). Four months later, in Nisan, Artaxerxes notices his sadness: "Why is thy countenance sad, seeing thou art not sick?" Afraid, since gloom before the king was dangerous, Nehemiah explains that the city of his fathers' tombs lies waste. "For what dost thou make request? So I prayed to the God of heaven." He asks to be sent to rebuild it, and for letters to the governors Beyond the River and to Asaph, keeper of the king's forest, for timber. "The king granted me, according to the good hand of my God upon me."

Arrival and the night inspection (2:9–20). He travels with army officers and horsemen. Sanballat the Horonite and Tobiah the Ammonite official are "grieved exceedingly that there was come a man to seek the welfare of the children of Israel." After three days he rides out secretly at night with a few men, inspecting the walls from the Valley Gate round to the Fountain Gate, where the rubble is too thick for his animal to pass. Then he tells the leaders: "Ye see the distress that we are in… come, and let us build up the wall of Jerusalem, that we be no more a reproach." They reply, "Let us rise up and build." When Sanballat, Tobiah and Geshem the Arab mock and accuse them of rebellion, Nehemiah answers, "The God of heaven, he will prosper us… but ye have no portion, nor right, nor memorial, in Jerusalem."

Who built what (3). A detailed list follows the wall anticlockwise, gate by gate. The high priest Eliashib and the priests build the Sheep Gate; men of Jericho, Tekoa, Gibeon and Mizpah take sections; goldsmiths, perfumers and merchants work; Shallum repairs his part "he and his daughters"; many build opposite their own houses. Only the nobles of Tekoa "put not their necks to the work".

Mockery and threat (4). Sanballat sneers, "What do these feeble Jews?" and Tobiah adds, "if a fox go up, he shall even break down their stone wall." Nehemiah prays, "Hear, O our God; for we are despised", and the wall is joined to half its height, "for the people had a mind to work." When enemies plot a surprise attack and Judah's workers grow exhausted, Nehemiah stations families with swords, spears and bows: "Be not ye afraid of them: remember the Lord, which is great and terrible, and fight." From then on half work and half stand guard; the builders carry loads with one hand and a weapon in the other; a trumpeter stands by Nehemiah, "our God shall fight for us." They work from dawn until the stars appear, and no one takes off his clothes except to wash.

Injustice within (5). A great outcry rises from the poor. Some lack grain; others have mortgaged fields, vineyards and houses, or borrowed to pay the king's tax, and their sons and daughters have been sold into bondage to fellow Jews. Nehemiah is "very angry". He rebukes the nobles and officials: "ought ye not to walk in the fear of our God?" He has them swear to stop charging interest and to restore fields and houses, and shakes out his garment as a curse on any who break the oath. The people say "Amen". For twelve years as governor he refuses the food allowance earlier governors took, works on the wall himself, and feeds 150 Jews and officials at his own table. "Think upon me, my God, for good."

Plots against Nehemiah (6:1–14). With the wall almost complete, Sanballat and Geshem invite him four times to meet in the plain of Ono, intending harm. "I am doing a great work, so that I cannot come down: why should the work cease?" A fifth message comes as an open letter: Nehemiah plans to rebel and has prophets proclaiming him king. He replies that they invent it, and prays, "Now therefore, O God, strengthen my hands." Shemaiah, a hired prophet, urges him to hide in the temple at night. "Should such a man as I flee? and who is there… would go into the temple to save his life? I will not go in." Even a prophetess, Noadiah, tries to frighten him.

The wall finished (6:15–19). The wall is completed on the twenty-fifth of Elul, in fifty-two days. The surrounding nations are "much cast down… for they perceived that this work was wrought of our God." Yet Tobiah, related by marriage to Judah's nobles, keeps up letters of intimidation.

Guarding and registering the city (7). Nehemiah appoints gatekeepers, singers and Levites, puts his brother Hanani and Hananiah, "a faithful man, and feared God above many", over Jerusalem, and orders the gates kept shut until the sun is hot. "Now the city was large and great: but the people were few therein, and the houses were not builded." God puts it in his heart to register the people, and he finds the list of the first returnees, which is repeated (compare Ezra 2).

Part 2 — The Law and the Covenant (chapters 8–10)

Ezra reads the law (8:1–12). On the first day of the seventh month, all the people gather "as one man" in the square before the Water Gate and ask Ezra to bring the Book of the Law of Moses. He stands on a wooden pulpit and reads "from the morning until midday" to men, women and all who could understand. When he opens the book, the people stand; when he blesses the LORD, they answer "Amen, Amen", lifting their hands, and bow with their faces to the ground. The Levites move among them, "and they read in the book in the law of God distinctly, and gave the sense, and caused them to understand the reading." The people weep as they hear it. Nehemiah, Ezra and the Levites say, "This day is holy unto the LORD your God; mourn not, nor weep… neither be ye sorry; for the joy of the LORD is your strength." They feast and send portions to those with nothing, "because they had understood the words."

Tabernacles (8:13–18). Studying on the second day, the leaders find the command to live in booths during the seventh-month feast. The people gather olive, pine, myrtle and palm branches and build booths on rooftops, in courtyards, in the temple courts and in the city squares. Not since the days of Joshua son of Nun had Israel kept it so, "and there was very great gladness." Ezra reads from the law each day of the feast.

Confession (9). On the twenty-fourth of the month the people assemble with fasting, sackcloth and dust, separate themselves from foreigners, and confess. For a quarter of the day they read the law, and for another quarter they confess and worship. The Levites lead a long prayer recounting Israel's story: creation ("thou, even thou, art LORD alone"), the call of Abraham, the Exodus and the Red Sea, the pillar of cloud and fire, Sinai, manna and water from the rock, the golden calf, the wilderness years, the conquest, the judges, and the prophets ignored. Through it all, "thou art a God ready to pardon, gracious and merciful, slow to anger, and of great kindness, and forsookest them not." The prayer ends in the present: "Behold, we are servants this day" in the land given to their fathers; its produce goes to foreign kings, "and we are in great distress."

The sealed covenant (10). "We make a sure covenant, and write it." Nehemiah the governor heads a list of priests, Levites and leaders who seal it; the rest of the people join "with a curse, and with an oath, to walk in God's law". They pledge not to give their children in marriage to the surrounding peoples; not to buy goods from traders on the sabbath or holy days; to let the land rest and cancel debts every seventh year; to pay a yearly temple tax of a third of a shekel; to supply wood for the altar; and to bring firstfruits, firstborn and tithes to the storehouses. "We will not forsake the house of our God."

Part 3 — The City Filled and Dedicated (chapters 11–12)

Living in Jerusalem (11). The leaders settle in Jerusalem, and the rest cast lots to bring one in ten to live "in Jerusalem the holy city"; the people bless those who volunteer. Lists name the families of Judah and Benjamin, priests, Levites and gatekeepers in Jerusalem, and the villages where others live.

Priests and Levites (12:1–26). The priestly and Levitical families are traced from the time of Zerubbabel and Jeshua through later high priests, together with the singers who stood "to praise and to give thanks, according to the commandment of David the man of God, ward over against ward."

The dedication of the wall (12:27–47). Levites are brought in from the villages "to keep the dedication with gladness". Priests and Levites purify themselves, the people, the gates and the wall. Nehemiah sets two great thanksgiving choirs on the wall; one, with Ezra at its head, goes to the right, and the other, with Nehemiah, to the left, meeting at the house of God with trumpets and David's instruments. They offer great sacrifices and rejoice, "for God had made them rejoice with great joy: the wives also and the children rejoiced: so that the joy of Jerusalem was heard even afar off." Officers are appointed over the storerooms, and Judah gladly supports the priests and Levites.

Part 4 — Nehemiah's Second Term (chapter 13)

Separation (13:1–3). On reading that no Ammonite or Moabite may enter the assembly, because they had hired Balaam to curse Israel, "howbeit our God turned the curse into a blessing", the people separate from those of foreign descent.

Tobiah evicted (13:4–9). In the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes Nehemiah had returned to the king. Coming back later, he finds that Eliashib the priest has given Tobiah a large chamber in the temple courts, once a storeroom for offerings. "It grieved me sore: therefore I cast forth all the household stuff of Tobiah out of the chamber." He has the rooms cleansed and the vessels and offerings returned.

The Levites' portions (13:10–14). The Levites and singers have not received their portions and have gone back to their fields. "Why is the house of God forsaken?" Nehemiah gathers them back; all Judah brings tithes of grain, new wine and oil, and he appoints faithful treasurers. "Remember me, O my God… and wipe not out my good deeds."

The sabbath (13:15–22). He sees people treading winepresses, loading donkeys and bringing produce into Jerusalem on the sabbath, and men of Tyre selling fish. He rebukes the nobles: was this not why God brought evil on the city? He orders the gates shut as darkness falls before the sabbath and stations servants there. When merchants camp outside the wall, he threatens to arrest them, and they stop coming. He commands the Levites to guard the gates to keep the sabbath holy.

Mixed marriages (13:23–31). He finds Jews who have married women of Ashdod, Ammon and Moab; half their children speak the language of Ashdod "and could not speak in the Jews' language." Nehemiah contends with them, curses, strikes some and pulls out their hair, and makes them swear not to give their children in such marriages, recalling that even Solomon, beloved of God, was led into sin. A grandson of the high priest has married Sanballat's daughter, and Nehemiah drives him away. He purifies the priests and Levites and arranges the wood offering and firstfruits. The book closes: "Remember me, O my God, for good."

Key themes, and the bridge to Esther

• Prayer and action together. Nehemiah prays, then plans, works and organises; "we made our prayer unto our God, and set a watch."
• The good hand of God. God works through a pagan king's favour, through ordinary builders and through perseverance under threat.
• Opposition from without and within. Mockery, threats, plots and false prophets are matched by injustice, compromise and neglect inside the community.
• Community and justice. Rebuilding includes protecting the poor, cancelling exploitation, and sharing the work family by family.
• The word of God renews a people. The reading and explaining of the law brings weeping, joy, confession and covenant: "the joy of the LORD is your strength."
• Fragile faithfulness. Chapter 13 shows the covenant's promises (sabbath, tithes, marriage, the temple) broken within a few years. Reform must be renewed again and again.

Nehemiah ends not with triumph but with an honest prayer: the walls stand, worship is restored, yet the people's hearts keep drifting, and the governor can only ask God to remember him for good. The story of Israel after the exile then turns east again: Esther is set back in Susa, among the Jews who stayed in Persia, where God's people face a deadly threat and God's hand is at work unseen.

Overview

Esther is set in the Persian Empire during the reign of King Ahasuerus (usually identified with Xerxes I, 486–465 BC), in the citadel of Susa. Unlike Ezra and Nehemiah, which follow the exiles who went home to Judah, Esther tells the story of Jews who stayed scattered across the empire. Its author is unknown; it was probably written in the Persian or early Hellenistic period.

The book is a tightly built court drama full of reversals: banquets, decrees, a sleepless king and a lot that is cast and then overturned. Famously, the Hebrew text never mentions God by name, yet the story is shaped by striking "coincidences" that readers have long understood as the hidden providence of God. It explains the origin of the Jewish festival of Purim.

The book falls into four parts: Esther becomes queen (chapters 1–2); Haman's plot (3–5); the great reversal (6–8); and victory and the feast of Purim (9–10).

Part 1 — A Jewish Queen in Persia (chapters 1–2)

The king's banquets (1). Ahasuerus rules 127 provinces "from India to Cush". In his third year he shows off his wealth to his nobles for 180 days, then holds a seven-day feast for all the people of Susa. On the seventh day, merry with wine, he orders Queen Vashti to appear wearing her crown to display her beauty. Vashti deposed (1). Vashti refuses. The king's advisers warn that wives throughout the empire will despise their husbands, so a decree removes Vashti and her position is to be given to another. Esther chosen (2). Young women are gathered to Susa. Among them is Hadassah, called Esther, an orphan raised by her cousin Mordecai, a Benjamite whose family was exiled from Jerusalem with King Jeconiah. Esther wins favour with everyone, and in the king's seventh year she is made queen. On Mordecai's advice she keeps her Jewish identity secret. A plot uncovered (2). Sitting at the king's gate, Mordecai learns that two doorkeepers, Bigthan and Teresh, plan to assassinate the king. Esther reports it in Mordecai's name; the men are hanged, and the event is recorded in the royal chronicles — but Mordecai is not rewarded.

Part 2 — Haman's Plot (chapters 3–5)

Mordecai refuses to bow (3). The king promotes Haman the Agagite above all his officials. (The name recalls Agag, the Amalekite king of 1 Samuel 15, Israel's ancient enemy, while Mordecai, like Saul, is a Benjamite son of Kish.) Everyone bows to Haman except Mordecai, who explains that he is a Jew. The lot is cast (3). Haman decides to destroy not only Mordecai but all the Jews in the empire. He casts pur, the lot, to choose a date, and it falls on the thirteenth of Adar, eleven months away. He tells the king of "a certain people scattered abroad" whose laws differ, and offers ten thousand talents of silver. The king hands over his signet ring. Couriers carry the decree to every province; "the king and Haman sat down to drink; but the city Shushan was perplexed" (3:15). Mourning and a challenge (4). Mordecai puts on sackcloth and ashes, and Jews across the provinces fast and weep. Esther learns of it through her servant Hathach. She explains that anyone who approaches the king without being summoned dies unless he extends his golden sceptre, and she has not been called for thirty days. Mordecai replies that she will not escape in the palace, that deliverance will "arise from another place" if she is silent, and asks: "who knoweth whether thou art come to the kingdom for such a time as this?" (4:14). "If I perish, I perish" (4). Esther asks all the Jews of Susa to fast for her three days, as she and her maids will, and resolves to go to the king. The first banquet (5). On the third day she stands in the inner court in her royal robes. The king extends the sceptre and offers her "even to the half of the kingdom". She invites the king and Haman to a banquet, and there invites them to a second one the next day. The gallows (5). Haman leaves elated but is enraged again when Mordecai will not rise for him. On the advice of his wife Zeresh and his friends he has a gallows (or stake) fifty cubits high built for Mordecai.

Part 3 — The Great Reversal (chapters 6–8)

A sleepless night (6). That night the king cannot sleep and has the chronicles read to him. He hears how Mordecai saved his life and learns nothing was done to honour him. Haman honours Mordecai (6). At that moment Haman arrives to ask for Mordecai's execution. The king asks him, "What shall be done unto the man whom the king delighteth to honour?" Assuming he is the man, Haman proposes royal robes, the king's horse and a public proclamation. The king tells him to do exactly that for Mordecai. Haman leads Mordecai through the city square, then goes home in grief; Zeresh warns that he will surely fall before him. The second banquet (7). Esther reveals her request: her life and her people's lives, for "we are sold, I and my people, to be destroyed". When the king asks who has done this, she answers, "The adversary and enemy is this wicked Haman." Haman's fall (7). The king storms into the garden. Returning, he finds Haman fallen on Esther's couch begging for mercy. The servant Harbona mentions the gallows built for Mordecai, and Haman is hanged on it. A counter-decree (8). The king gives Haman's estate to Esther, and Mordecai receives the signet ring. But a Persian law sealed with the king's ring cannot be revoked. Esther weeps at the king's feet, and Mordecai is allowed to write a new decree permitting Jews everywhere to assemble and defend themselves on the thirteenth of Adar. Mordecai goes out in royal robes of blue and white with a golden crown; the Jews have "light, and gladness, and joy, and honour", and many people declare themselves Jews.

Part 4 — Victory and the Feast of Purim (chapters 9–10)

The thirteenth of Adar (9). On the day their enemies hoped to overpower them, "it was turned to the contrary". The Jews defend themselves and strike down their attackers: five hundred men and Haman's ten sons in Susa, a further three hundred there the next day, and seventy-five thousand in the provinces. Three times the text notes that they did not take any plunder. Purim instituted (9). The Jews rest and feast on the fourteenth (in Susa, the fifteenth), sending gifts of food to one another and gifts to the poor. Mordecai writes to establish the days as an annual festival, named Purim after the pur Haman cast. Esther confirms it with a second letter of full authority. Mordecai's greatness (10). The book closes with Mordecai second in rank to the king, "great among the Jews", seeking the good of his people and speaking peace to all his descendants.

Key themes, and the bridge to Job

• Hidden providence. God is never named, yet the timing of Esther's rise, the king's insomnia and Haman's early arrival suggest an unseen hand at work.
• Reversal. The whole story turns on reversals: the honoured is humbled, the gallows is used on its builder, the day of destruction becomes a day of rescue, and mourning becomes feasting.
• Courage and identity. Esther moves from hiding her identity to risking her life for her people; Mordecai's refusal to bow sets the crisis in motion.
• Life in exile. Esther shows God's people surviving and even thriving as a minority in a foreign empire, under laws they did not write.
• Remembrance. Purim is still celebrated, with the reading of the scroll (the Megillah), feasting and gifts to the poor.

Esther ends with the people safe and the festival established, but still living under a Persian king rather than in a restored kingdom. It closes the historical books of the Old Testament. The next book, Job, steps out of history altogether into the wisdom and poetry books, and turns from a story where God is silent but active to a story where a suffering man demands that God speak.

Overview

Job is the first of the Old Testament's poetic and wisdom books. It tells of a righteous man from the land of Uz, east of Israel, who loses everything and then argues with his friends, and finally with God, about why. The setting feels patriarchal: Job is wealthy in flocks and herds, offers sacrifices himself, and there is no mention of Israel's law, temple or kings. The author and date are unknown; suggestions range from the age of Solomon to the exile, and the book is widely admired as one of the masterpieces of world literature.

The book has a prose frame around a long poetic centre. It falls into five parts: the prologue in heaven and on earth (chapters 1–2); Job's lament and the three cycles of debate with his friends (3–27); a poem on wisdom and Job's final defence (28–31); the speeches of Elihu (32–37); and the LORD's speeches from the whirlwind, Job's response and the epilogue (38–42).

Part 1 — The Testing of Job (chapters 1–2)

Job's piety (1). Job is "perfect and upright, and one that feared God, and eschewed evil". He has seven sons, three daughters, 7,000 sheep, 3,000 camels, 500 yoke of oxen and 500 donkeys — "the greatest of all the men of the east". After his children's feasts he offers burnt offerings in case they have sinned. The first test (1). The heavenly beings present themselves before the LORD, and "the satan" (the Accuser) comes among them. The LORD points to Job; the Accuser asks, "Doth Job fear God for nought?" He is permitted to touch Job's possessions. In one day Sabeans, fire from heaven and Chaldeans destroy Job's herds and servants, and a great wind collapses the house on his children. Job tears his robe and worships: "the LORD gave, and the LORD hath taken away; blessed be the name of the LORD" (1:21). The second test (2). The Accuser says, "Skin for skin", and is allowed to strike Job's body but spare his life. Job is covered in sores and sits in ashes, scraping himself with a potsherd. His wife says, "Curse God, and die." Job replies, "shall we receive good at the hand of God, and shall we not receive evil?" (2:10). The friends arrive (2). Eliphaz the Temanite, Bildad the Shuhite and Zophar the Naamathite come to comfort him. They weep, throw dust on their heads and sit with him in silence seven days and nights.

Part 2 — The Great Debate (chapters 3–27)

Job's lament (3). Job breaks the silence by cursing the day of his birth and longing for the rest of the grave: "Wherefore is light given to him that is in misery?" First cycle (4–14). Eliphaz, gently at first, appeals to experience and a night vision: the innocent do not perish, and "happy is the man whom God correcteth" (5:17). Job replies that his friends are like seasonal streams that fail the thirsty (6), and asks God, "What is man, that thou shouldest magnify him?" (7:17). Bildad appeals to tradition: God does not pervert justice; Job's children must have sinned (8). Job agrees God is just but asks how anyone can win a case against him, wishing for an "umpire" or "daysman" between them (9:33). Zophar insists God has punished Job less than he deserves (11). Job answers with sarcasm and defiance — "Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him" (13:15) — and wonders whether a man, unlike a felled tree, can live again (14). Second cycle (15–21). The friends harden, describing the dreadful fate of the wicked. Job calls them "miserable comforters" (16:2) yet declares that his "witness is in heaven". At his lowest point, deserted by kin and servants, he cries, "I know that my redeemer liveth... yet in my flesh shall I see God" (19:25–26). In chapter 21 he challenges their whole theory: the wicked often live long, prosper and die in peace. Third cycle (22–27). Eliphaz now accuses Job of specific sins against the poor (22). Job cannot find God anywhere, yet says, "when he hath tried me, I shall come forth as gold" (23:10). Bildad's last speech is only six verses (25), and Zophar does not speak again. Job maintains his integrity (27).

Part 3 — Wisdom and Job's Defence (chapters 28–31)

The hymn to wisdom (28). Miners dig deep for silver, gold and sapphires, but wisdom cannot be dug up or bought. Only God knows its place: "the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom; and to depart from evil is understanding" (28:28). Job's final speeches (29–31). Job recalls his former honour at the city gate, when he was "eyes to the blind, and feet... to the lame" (29). He laments his present humiliation, mocked by the young (30). In chapter 31 he swears an oath of innocence, covering lust, dishonesty, neglect of the poor, idolatry and hatred, and ends by signing his case: "my desire is, that the Almighty would answer me". "The words of Job are ended."

Part 4 — The Speeches of Elihu (chapters 32–37)

A young voice (32–37). Elihu son of Barachel, who has waited out of respect for his elders, is angry with Job for justifying himself rather than God, and with the friends for failing to answer. He argues that God speaks through dreams and through suffering to turn people from pride (33), that God cannot act wickedly (34), and that suffering can teach (36). His final speech describes a gathering storm and God's majesty in thunder, snow and rain (37), preparing for what follows. Neither God nor the narrator responds to Elihu directly.

Part 5 — The LORD Speaks (chapters 38–42)

The first speech (38–39). "Then the LORD answered Job out of the whirlwind." God does not explain the heavenly test. Instead he questions Job: "Where wast thou when I laid the foundations of the earth... when the morning stars sang together?" (38:4–7). He speaks of the sea's boundaries, the dawn, the storehouses of snow and hail, the constellations — "Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades?" — and then of wild creatures: lioness, raven, mountain goat, wild donkey, wild ox, ostrich, war-horse, hawk and eagle. Job's first reply (40). "Behold, I am vile... I will lay mine hand upon my mouth" (40:4). The second speech (40–41). God asks, "Wilt thou condemn me, that thou mayest be righteous?" and describes Behemoth, the mightiest of land beasts, and Leviathan, the untameable sea-monster whose breath kindles coals. Job's repentance (42). Job confesses that he spoke of "things too wonderful for me", and says: "I have heard of thee by the hearing of the ear: but now mine eye seeth thee. Wherefore I abhor myself, and repent in dust and ashes" (42:5–6). Epilogue (42). The LORD tells Eliphaz that he and his two friends have "not spoken of me the thing that is right, as my servant Job hath". They offer seven bulls and seven rams, and Job prays for them. The LORD restores Job's fortunes twofold: 14,000 sheep, 6,000 camels, 1,000 yoke of oxen and 1,000 donkeys. He has seven more sons and three daughters — Jemimah, Keziah and Keren-happuch, the fairest in the land, who receive an inheritance with their brothers. Job lives 140 years and dies "old and full of days".

Key themes, and the bridge to Psalms

• Disinterested faith. The Accuser's question — does Job fear God "for nothing"? — drives the book. Job's faith survives the loss of every reward.
• Suffering and justice. The friends hold a neat theory that suffering always means sin. The book rejects it: God says Job, not the friends, spoke rightly.
• Honest protest. Job's laments, complaints and demands are part of faith, not its opposite. He speaks to God, not only about him.
• God's freedom and wisdom. God answers not with an explanation but with himself, revealing a creation far larger and wilder than human understanding.
• Hope beyond the present. Job's longing for an umpire, a heavenly witness and a living Redeemer reaches beyond his own lifetime.

Job ends with restoration, yet the reason for his suffering is never told to him, and the reader is left to live with the mystery. Its mix of lament, questioning and praise leads naturally into the Psalms, Israel's songbook, where the same honesty before God is turned into prayer and song.

Overview

The Psalms (Hebrew Tehillim, "praises") is a collection of 150 songs and prayers, the hymnbook of ancient Israel and the prayer book of synagogue and church. Its poems were written over roughly a thousand years, from Moses (Psalm 90) through David and the temple musicians to the exile and return (Psalms 126, 137). Seventy-three psalms are headed "of David"; others are linked to Asaph, the sons of Korah, Solomon, Heman, Ethan and Moses, and many are anonymous. The headings and their musical terms (like the frequent "Selah") are ancient, though scholars discuss how and when they were added.

The collection is arranged in five books, perhaps echoing the five books of Moses. Each ends with a doxology (a short blessing of God): Book One (Psalms 1–41), Book Two (42–72), Book Three (73–89), Book Four (90–106) and Book Five (107–150), with Psalm 150 acting as a closing doxology for the whole.

Across the books, the psalms fall into recurring kinds: hymns of praise; laments (individual and communal — the most common type); songs of thanksgiving for deliverance; royal psalms about the king and God's kingship; wisdom psalms on the two ways and God's law; and the songs of ascents, sung by pilgrims going up to Jerusalem. The overall movement runs from lament towards praise.

Part 1 — Book One (Psalms 1–41)

The two ways (1). A wisdom psalm opens the collection: "Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly... his delight is in the law of the LORD." The righteous are "like a tree planted by the rivers of water"; the wicked "are like the chaff which the wind driveth away". The LORD's anointed (2). A royal psalm: the nations conspire against the LORD and his anointed, but God has set his king on Zion: "Thou art my Son; this day have I begotten thee." Psalms 1 and 2 together form a gateway — the way of wisdom and the hope of God's king. Crowned with glory (8). A hymn of creation: "When I consider thy heavens... What is man, that thou art mindful of him?" Humanity is made "a little lower than the angels" and given dominion over the creatures. The heavens and the law (19). "The heavens declare the glory of God." The sun goes out "as a bridegroom coming out of his chamber". Then the psalm turns to God's word: "The law of the LORD is perfect, converting the soul", sweeter than honey. Forsaken (22). A lament of extreme suffering: "My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?" The sufferer is mocked, his bones out of joint, hands and feet pierced, his garments divided by lot. The psalm turns to praise and a vision of all nations worshipping. The Gospels apply it to the crucifixion. The shepherd (23). The best-known psalm: "The LORD is my shepherd; I shall not want." Green pastures, still waters, "the valley of the shadow of death", a table prepared and an overflowing cup, ending "I will dwell in the house of the LORD for ever." Other highlights. Psalm 24 ("The earth is the LORD's"), Psalm 27 ("The LORD is my light"), Psalm 32 on forgiveness, and Psalm 37 (a wisdom psalm, "Fret not thyself because of evildoers"). Book One ends: "Blessed be the LORD God of Israel from everlasting, and to everlasting. Amen, and Amen" (41:13).

Part 2 — Book Two (Psalms 42–72)

Thirsting for God (42–43). The sons of Korah open the book: "As the hart panteth after the water brooks, so panteth my soul after thee, O God", with the refrain, "Why art thou cast down, O my soul? hope thou in God." God our refuge (46). "God is our refuge and strength, a very present help in trouble." Though the earth shakes and the mountains fall into the sea, "there is a river, the streams whereof shall make glad the city of God". "Be still, and know that I am God." A clean heart (51). David's prayer after Nathan confronts him over Bathsheba (2 Samuel 12): "Have mercy upon me, O God... Create in me a clean heart, O God; and renew a right spirit within me." God's true sacrifice is "a broken and a contrite heart". The ideal king (72). A royal psalm "for Solomon" prays for a king who defends the poor and rules "from sea to sea". Book Two ends: "The prayers of David the son of Jesse are ended."

Part 3 — Book Three (Psalms 73–89)

Envy and the sanctuary (73). Asaph almost slips, envying the prosperity of the wicked, "until I went into the sanctuary of God; then understood I their end". "Whom have I in heaven but thee?" National lament (74, 79, 80). Psalms mourn the destruction of the sanctuary and the nation's suffering: "O God, the heathen are come into thine inheritance." Psalm 80 prays, "Turn us again, O God... cause thy face to shine." The covenant in question (89). A royal psalm celebrates God's covenant with David — "His seed shall endure for ever, and his throne as the sun" — then laments that God has "profaned his crown by casting it to the ground". "Lord, where are thy former lovingkindnesses?" Book Three ends on this unresolved cry, matching the experience of exile.

Part 4 — Book Four (Psalms 90–106)

From everlasting (90). The only psalm attributed to Moses: "from everlasting to everlasting, thou art God... a thousand years in thy sight are but as yesterday". Human life is like grass; "teach us to number our days". Shelter and kingship (91–100). Psalm 91 promises refuge "under the shadow of the Almighty". Psalms 93–99 proclaim "The LORD reigneth" — the answer to the loss of David's throne. Psalm 95 calls, "O come, let us sing unto the LORD", and Psalm 100 invites all lands to "make a joyful noise". Bless the LORD (103). "Bless the LORD, O my soul, and forget not all his benefits." He forgives and heals; "as far as the east is from the west, so far hath he removed our transgressions from us". Like a father he pities his children. Creation and history (104–106). Psalm 104 is a great creation hymn: springs, cedars, wine, the moon for seasons, ships and Leviathan. Psalms 105–106 retell Israel's history from Abraham through Egypt and the wilderness, celebrating God's faithfulness and confessing Israel's rebellions.

Part 5 — Book Five (Psalms 107–150)

Thanksgiving of the redeemed (107). "O give thanks unto the LORD, for he is good: for his mercy endureth for ever. Let the redeemed of the LORD say so." Wanderers, prisoners, the sick and sailors in a storm cry out and are rescued: "He maketh the storm a calm." Royal and festival psalms (110, 113–118). Psalm 110 ("The LORD said unto my Lord, Sit thou at my right hand") is the psalm most quoted in the New Testament. Psalms 113–118, the "Hallel", were sung at Passover. The word (119). The longest psalm and chapter in the Bible, a wisdom psalm of 176 verses in 22 stanzas, one for each letter of the Hebrew alphabet, each verse praising God's law: "Thy word is a lamp unto my feet, and a light unto my path." Songs of Ascents (120–134). Fifteen short pilgrim songs. Psalm 121: "I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills... My help cometh from the LORD... he that keepeth Israel shall neither slumber nor sleep." Psalm 122: "I was glad when they said unto me, Let us go into the house of the LORD... Pray for the peace of Jerusalem." Psalm 126: "They that sow in tears shall reap in joy." Psalm 133: "how good and how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in unity". By the rivers of Babylon (137). A communal lament from exile: "there we sat down, yea, we wept, when we remembered Zion". The captives hang their harps on the willows: "How shall we sing the LORD's song in a strange land?" It closes with a raw, troubling cry for vengeance on Babylon — an honest prayer of the wounded, left in the hands of God. Searched and known (139). "O LORD, thou hast searched me, and known me." There is nowhere to flee from God's presence — "If I take the wings of the morning... even there shall thy hand lead me." "I am fearfully and wonderfully made." The final Hallelujah (145–150). Psalm 145 praises God's greatness and kindness. Psalms 146–150 each begin and end with "Praise ye the LORD" (Hallelujah), calling on all creation — sun and moon, sea monsters, fire and hail, kings and children — to praise. Psalm 150 summons trumpet, harp, timbrel, dance and cymbals: "Let every thing that hath breath praise the LORD."

Key themes, and the bridge to Proverbs

• Honest prayer. The psalms give words for every situation — joy, guilt, fear, anger, grief — and bring them all to God.
• From lament to praise. Laments dominate the early books; praise grows until it fills the end of the collection.
• The LORD reigns. God is king over creation and history, even when David's throne falls.
• The anointed king. Royal psalms celebrate David's line and nurture hope for a coming Messiah; the New Testament applies many of them to Jesus.
• God's word and wisdom. Psalms 1, 19 and 119 commend meditation on God's law as the path of life.
• Zion and worship. The temple, the pilgrim festivals and the longing for God's presence run throughout.

The Psalms end not with an argument but with an orchestra: everything that breathes praising God. Having learned to pray, the reader turns to Proverbs, where the "fear of the LORD" that the wisdom psalms praise becomes practical guidance for daily life, work, speech and family.

Overview

Proverbs is Israel's book of practical wisdom: guidance for living well in the home, the marketplace, the city gate and the royal court. It is associated above all with King Solomon (c. 970–930 BC), who according to 1 Kings 4 "spake three thousand proverbs", but the book itself names several contributors — Solomon, anonymous "wise men", the scribes of King Hezekiah (c. 700 BC), Agur son of Jakeh and King Lemuel. It probably reached its final form after Hezekiah's time; scholars debate exactly when.

Its theme is set in 1:7: "The fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge." Wisdom (Hebrew chokmah) means skill in living — a way of life shaped by reverence for God, shown in honest work, careful speech, generosity and self-control. Much of the book uses short, two-line sayings that observe how life generally works; they are proverbs, not promises.

The book falls into six parts: a father's instructions and the call of Wisdom (chapters 1–9); the proverbs of Solomon (10:1–22:16); the sayings of the wise (22:17–24:34); the proverbs copied by Hezekiah's men (25–29); the words of Agur (30); and the words of Lemuel, ending with the woman of strength (31).

Part 1 — A Father's Instruction and the Call of Wisdom (chapters 1–9)

Purpose and motto (1). The book is "to know wisdom and instruction... to give subtilty to the simple, to the young man knowledge and discretion". Its keynote: "The fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge: but fools despise wisdom and instruction" (1:7). Refuse the gang (1). "My son, hear the instruction of thy father, and forsake not the law of thy mother." If violent men invite him to ambush the innocent for easy loot, he must refuse: they "lay wait for their own blood". Wisdom cries aloud (1). Wisdom is personified as a woman calling in the streets and at the city gates: "How long, ye simple ones, will ye love simplicity?" Those who reject her will reap their own folly. Trust and the two paths (2–4). Wisdom must be sought like silver and hidden treasure. "Trust in the LORD with all thine heart; and lean not unto thine own understanding" (3:5). The father contrasts two ways: "the path of the just is as the shining light, that shineth more and more unto the perfect day", while the way of the wicked is darkness (4:18–19). "Keep thy heart with all diligence; for out of it are the issues of life" (4:23). Faithfulness in marriage (5–7). Repeated warnings against the seductive "strange woman", whose words are smooth but whose path leads to death. The youth is urged to "drink waters out of thine own cistern" and "rejoice with the wife of thy youth" (5:15–18). In chapter 7 the father watches from his window as a naive young man drifts by her corner at twilight and follows her "as an ox goeth to the slaughter". The ant and other warnings (6). "Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise" (6:6). The chapter also warns against rash pledges and lists "six things doth the LORD hate, yea, seven" — among them a proud look, a lying tongue and one who sows discord among brothers. Wisdom at creation (8). Wisdom speaks again: "The LORD possessed me in the beginning of his way... When he prepared the heavens, I was there... I was daily his delight, rejoicing always before him" (8:22–30). Wisdom is woven into the very structure of the world. Christian readers have often connected this passage with Christ, the Word through whom all things were made. Two invitations (9). "Wisdom hath builded her house, she hath hewn out her seven pillars," and she invites the simple to her feast. Folly, loud and ignorant, also calls from her doorway — "Stolen waters are sweet" — but "her guests are in the depths of hell". The reader must choose whose banquet to attend.

Part 2 — The Proverbs of Solomon (10:1–22:16)

Contrasting pairs (10–15). About 375 sayings, mostly two lines. Chapters 10–15 typically set opposites side by side: "A wise son maketh a glad father: but a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother" (10:1). Speech. "A soft answer turneth away wrath: but grievous words stir up anger" (15:1). "Death and life are in the power of the tongue" (18:21). "Even a fool, when he holdeth his peace, is counted wise" (17:28). Work and money. "A false balance is abomination to the LORD: but a just weight is his delight" (11:1). "The hand of the diligent maketh rich" (10:4). "Better is a little with righteousness than great revenues without right" (16:8). Pride and God's sovereignty (16). "Pride goeth before destruction, and an haughty spirit before a fall" (16:18). "A man's heart deviseth his way: but the LORD directeth his steps" (16:9). "The lot is cast into the lap; but the whole disposing thereof is of the LORD" (16:33). Family and friendship (17–22). "A friend loveth at all times, and a brother is born for adversity" (17:17); "there is a friend that sticketh closer than a brother" (18:24). "Children's children are the crown of old men" (17:6). "Train up a child in the way he should go: and when he is old, he will not depart from it" (22:6). The poor, kings and wine (19–22). "He that hath pity upon the poor lendeth unto the LORD" (19:17). "The king's heart is in the hand of the LORD, as the rivers of water" (21:1). "Wine is a mocker, strong drink is raging" (20:1). "A good name is rather to be chosen than great riches" (22:1).

Part 3 — The Sayings of the Wise (22:17–24:34)

Thirty sayings (22:17–24:22). A collection introduced as "thirty sayings" (22:20, in many translations). Part of it closely parallels the Egyptian Instruction of Amenemope, showing that Israel's sages engaged with the wisdom of neighbouring cultures while grounding it in the LORD. "Remove not the old landmark"; "Rob not the poor"; do not envy sinners; and "deliver them that are drawn unto death" (24:11). The sluggard's vineyard (24:23–34). A further set of sayings ends with a vivid scene: the field of the lazy man "all grown over with thorns", its stone wall broken down. "A little sleep, a little slumber, a little folding of the hands to sleep: so shall thy poverty come."

Part 4 — Hezekiah's Collection (chapters 25–29)

Copied by Hezekiah's men (25). "These are also proverbs of Solomon, which the men of Hezekiah king of Judah copied out." "It is the glory of God to conceal a thing: but the honour of kings is to search out a matter" (25:2). "A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pictures of silver" (25:11). "If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat... thou shalt heap coals of fire upon his head" (25:21–22), later quoted by Paul in Romans 12. The fool and the sluggard (26). Sharp, humorous portraits: the sluggard turns on his bed like a door on its hinges. Two sayings sit side by side — "Answer not a fool according to his folly" and "Answer a fool according to his folly" (26:4–5) — showing that wisdom is knowing which applies when. Friends and the future (27). "Boast not thyself of to morrow." "Faithful are the wounds of a friend." "Iron sharpeneth iron; so a man sharpeneth the countenance of his friend" (27:17). Justice and rulers (28–29). "The wicked flee when no man pursueth: but the righteous are bold as a lion" (28:1). "Where there is no vision, the people perish" (29:18). "The fear of man bringeth a snare: but whoso putteth his trust in the LORD shall be safe" (29:25).

Part 5 — The Words of Agur (chapter 30)

Humility (30). Agur son of Jakeh confesses his ignorance and asks who has ascended to heaven and gathered the wind in his fists. "Every word of God is pure." He prays, "Give me neither poverty nor riches; feed me with food convenient for me" — lest he forget God or steal. Numerical sayings (30). "There be three things... yea, four": four things too wonderful — "the way of an eagle in the air; the way of a serpent upon a rock; the way of a ship in the midst of the sea; and the way of a man with a maid". Four small but wise creatures: ants, rock badgers, locusts and the lizard (or spider) in kings' palaces.

Part 6 — The Words of Lemuel and the Woman of Strength (chapter 31)

A mother's advice (31:1–9). King Lemuel records what his mother taught him: not to give his strength to women or wine, lest he forget the law. "Open thy mouth for the dumb... plead the cause of the poor and needy." The virtuous woman (31:10–31). The book ends with an acrostic poem, each verse beginning with the next letter of the Hebrew alphabet: "Who can find a virtuous woman? for her price is far above rubies." She rises before dawn, works wool and flax, buys a field and plants a vineyard, trades profitably, keeps her lamp burning, gives to the poor and speaks with wisdom and kindness. "Strength and honour are her clothing." Her children call her blessed. The poem closes: "Favour is deceitful, and beauty is vain: but a woman that feareth the LORD, she shall be praised." She embodies in a life what Lady Wisdom offered in chapters 1–9.

Key themes, and the bridge to Ecclesiastes

• The fear of the LORD. Wisdom begins and ends with reverence for God (1:7; 9:10; 31:30).
• Two ways. Wisdom and folly, righteousness and wickedness, life and death are set before the reader as a choice.
• Wisdom personified. Wisdom calls in the streets, was present at creation and hosts a feast.
• Words, work and wealth. Honest scales, diligent hands, careful speech and generosity to the poor are the stuff of godly living.
• Family and community. Parents teach, friends sharpen, and justice at the gate holds society together.

Proverbs ends confidently: the wise generally flourish, and the woman who fears the LORD is praised in the gates. The next book, Ecclesiastes, takes up the same wisdom tradition but presses its hardest questions — what if the righteous and the wicked share the same fate, and everything under the sun seems "vanity"?

Overview

Ecclesiastes is the reflection of a teacher who calls himself Qoheleth — "the Preacher" or "the one who gathers the assembly" — "the son of David, king in Jerusalem". Jewish and Christian tradition long identified him with Solomon, and chapters 1–2 deliberately wear Solomon's robes: unmatched wisdom, wealth, building projects and pleasures. Many modern scholars date the book later, around the Persian or early Hellenistic period, on grounds of its Hebrew; the book itself never names Solomon. It belongs to Israel's wisdom literature alongside Job and Proverbs.

Its keyword is hebel, translated "vanity" (KJV) and meaning a breath, vapour or mist — something fleeting, insubstantial or baffling. It appears some 38 times. The phrase "under the sun" marks the book's viewpoint: life as observed in this world. Against the confident patterns of Proverbs, Qoheleth notices death, injustice, chance and the limits of human understanding — yet he repeatedly commends receiving food, work and love as gifts from God, and ends by calling readers to fear God.

The book falls loosely into five parts: the prologue and the Preacher's experiment (chapters 1–2); a time for everything and the limits of life under the sun (3–5); wisdom tested by life's riddles (6–8); chance, death and the call to enjoy life (9–10); and the closing call to generosity, youth and remembering the Creator, with an epilogue (11–12).

Part 1 — The Preacher's Experiment (chapters 1–2)

Vanity of vanities (1:1–11). "Vanity of vanities, saith the Preacher... all is vanity. What profit hath a man of all his labour which he taketh under the sun?" Generations come and go while the earth remains. The sun rises and sets, the wind circles, rivers run into a sea that is never full. "There is no new thing under the sun", and nothing is remembered. The search through wisdom (1:12–18). As king over Israel in Jerusalem, he sets out to explore everything done under heaven. It is "vexation of spirit" — a chasing after the wind. "In much wisdom is much grief: and he that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow." Pleasure and great works (2:1–11). He tests laughter, wine and pleasure. He builds houses, plants vineyards, gardens and orchards, makes pools, acquires servants, herds, silver and gold, singers and "the delights of the sons of men". "Whatsoever mine eyes desired I kept not from them." But looking back, "all was vanity and vexation of spirit, and there was no profit under the sun." Wisdom and death (2:12–23). Wisdom excels folly "as far as light excelleth darkness", yet the wise man dies just like the fool and both are forgotten. He comes to hate his labour, since he must leave it to someone who may be a fool. God's gift (2:24–26). The first of several refrains of enjoyment: "There is nothing better for a man, than that he should eat and drink, and that he should make his soul enjoy good in his labour. This also I saw, that it was from the hand of God."

Part 2 — A Time for Everything (chapters 3–5)

The seasons of life (3:1–8). "To every thing there is a season, and a time to every purpose under the heaven": a time to be born and to die, to plant and to uproot, to weep and to laugh, to mourn and to dance, to keep silence and to speak, to love and to hate, a time of war and a time of peace. Eternity in the heart (3:9–22). "He hath made every thing beautiful in his time: also he hath set the world [eternity] in their heart", yet no one can grasp God's work from beginning to end. God's work endures for ever. He notes wickedness in the place of justice and that humans, like animals, return to dust — "who knoweth" what lies beyond? Oppression, envy and companionship (4). He sees the tears of the oppressed with "no comforter", toil driven by envy, and a lonely man working endlessly with no heir. "Two are better than one... a threefold cord is not quickly broken." A poor, wise youth is better than an old, foolish king — yet even popularity fades. Worship and wealth (5). "Keep thy foot when thou goest to the house of God"; "God is in heaven, and thou upon earth: therefore let thy words be few." Pay your vows. "He that loveth silver shall not be satisfied with silver"; the rich man's abundance keeps him awake. "As he came forth of his mother's womb, naked shall he return." To enjoy one's portion is "the gift of God".

Part 3 — Wisdom Tested by Life's Riddles (chapters 6–8)

Unenjoyed riches (6). A man may have wealth, a hundred children and long life, yet be unable to enjoy any of it; a stillborn child is better off. "All the labour of man is for his mouth, and yet the appetite is not filled." Better-than sayings (7). "A good name is better than precious ointment; and the day of death than the day of one's birth." "It is better to go to the house of mourning, than to go to the house of feasting." "In the day of prosperity be joyful, but in the day of adversity consider." He warns, "Be not righteous over much... be not over much wicked", and confesses that wisdom remained "far from me". Kings and riddles (8). Keep the king's command. Yet "there be just men, unto whom it happeneth according to the work of the wicked; again, there be wicked men, to whom it happeneth according to the work of the righteous." Again he commends eating, drinking and joy, and concludes that no one, however wise, can find out the work of God "that is done under the sun".

Part 4 — Chance, Death and the Call to Joy (chapters 9–10)

One fate (9:1–10). The righteous and the wicked, the clean and the unclean, all share one event: death. Yet "a living dog is better than a dead lion". So: "Go thy way, eat thy bread with joy, and drink thy wine with a merry heart... Live joyfully with the wife whom thou lovest... Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might." Time and chance (9:11–12). "The race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise... but time and chance happeneth to them all." The poor wise man (9:13–18). A small city besieged by a great king is saved by a poor wise man, "yet no man remembered that same poor man". "Wisdom is better than weapons of war: but one sinner destroyeth much good." Folly in small doses (10). "Dead flies cause the ointment of the apothecary to send forth a stinking savour: so doth a little folly." Proverb-like sayings on fools in high places, careless work ("whoso breaketh an hedge, a serpent shall bite him"), idle rulers and guarding one's words.

Part 5 — Remember Your Creator (chapters 11–12)

Generous risk (11:1–6). "Cast thy bread upon the waters: for thou shalt find it after many days." Give a portion to seven, or eight. "He that observeth the wind shall not sow." "In the morning sow thy seed, and in the evening withhold not thine hand." Rejoice in youth (11:7–10). "Truly the light is sweet." "Rejoice, O young man, in thy youth... but know thou, that for all these things God will bring thee into judgment." Before the silver cord is loosed (12:1–8). "Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth, while the evil days come not." Old age is pictured as a decaying house and a darkening world: the keepers tremble, the grinders cease because they are few, those who look out of the windows are darkened, the birdsong fades, the almond tree blossoms and desire fails, "because man goeth to his long home". Remember him "or ever the silver cord be loosed, or the golden bowl be broken... Then shall the dust return to the earth as it was: and the spirit shall return unto God who gave it." The book circles back to its opening: "Vanity of vanities, saith the preacher; all is vanity." Epilogue (12:9–14). A closing voice describes the Preacher as a teacher who weighed, studied and arranged many proverbs and sought "acceptable words". "The words of the wise are as goads." "Of making many books there is no end; and much study is a weariness of the flesh." Then: "Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter: Fear God, and keep his commandments: for this is the whole duty of man. For God shall bring every work into judgment, with every secret thing, whether it be good, or whether it be evil."

Key themes, and the bridge to Song of Songs

• Hebel. Life "under the sun" is a breath — brief, elusive and beyond human control.
• The limits of wisdom. Wisdom is better than folly, but it cannot master the future, explain injustice or escape death.
• Death the leveller. Wise and foolish, rich and poor, human and beast all return to dust.
• Joy as God's gift. Seven times the Preacher commends eating, drinking, work and love, received from God's hand.
• Fear God. Since humans cannot see the whole, the right response is reverence, obedience and trust in God's judgment.

Ecclesiastes ends with honest questions left standing but anchored in the fear of God. Having urged readers to "live joyfully with the wife whom thou lovest", it gives way to the Song of Songs, which celebrates exactly that gift — love between a bride and bridegroom, among gardens and vineyards in springtime.

Overview

The Song of Songs (also called the Song of Solomon or Canticles) is a collection of love poetry. Its title, "The song of songs, which is Solomon's", means "the finest of songs", and it is linked with King Solomon, who appears in it and is said to have written 1,005 songs (1 Kings 4:32). Whether Solomon wrote it, or it was written about him or in his tradition, is debated; its date is uncertain. It is the only book of the Bible wholly given to the love between a man and a woman, and God's name appears at most once, in a single word near the end (8:6).

The Song is a series of poems in dialogue. The main voices are the bride (once called "the Shulamite", 6:13), her beloved (pictured both as a shepherd and as a king), and a chorus, "the daughters of Jerusalem". Its imagery comes from the land of Israel in spring: vineyards, gardens, gazelles, doves, spices, fountains and mountains. A refrain marks its divisions: "I charge you, O ye daughters of Jerusalem... that ye stir not up, nor awake my love, till it please" (2:7; 3:5; 8:4).

It can be read in five movements: longing and first love (1:1–2:7); springtime and searching (2:8–3:5); the wedding procession and the garden (3:6–5:1); lost and found (5:2–8:4); and love strong as death (8:5–14).

Part 1 — Longing and First Love (1:1–2:7)

The bride's desire (1). The bride opens: "thy love is better than wine". Speaking to the daughters of Jerusalem, she explains that she is darkened by the sun: "I am black, but comely... my mother's children were angry with me; they made me the keeper of the vineyards; but mine own vineyard have I not kept." Where do you pasture? (1). She asks her beloved, "Tell me, O thou whom my soul loveth, where thou feedest, where thou makest thy flock to rest at noon." He invites her to follow the tracks of the flock and praises her beauty, likening her to a mare among Pharaoh's chariots. Rose and lily (2). "I am the rose of Sharon, and the lily of the valleys." He answers, "As the lily among thorns, so is my love among the daughters." She replies, "As the apple tree among the trees of the wood, so is my beloved... he brought me to the banqueting house, and his banner over me was love." The first charge (2:7). The movement ends with the refrain: love must not be awakened before its time.

Part 2 — Springtime and Searching (2:8–3:5)

The call of spring (2:8–17). Her beloved comes "leaping upon the mountains, skipping upon the hills" like a gazelle and calls through the window: "Rise up, my love, my fair one, and come away. For, lo, the winter is past, the rain is over and gone; the flowers appear on the earth; the time of the singing of birds is come." The fig ripens and the vines blossom. "Take us the foxes, the little foxes, that spoil the vines." She declares, "My beloved is mine, and I am his: he feedeth among the lilies." A night search (3:1–5). At night she seeks him and cannot find him. She goes through the city streets and asks the watchmen. Just after passing them, she finds him: "I held him, and would not let him go." The refrain is repeated.

Part 3 — The Wedding and the Garden (3:6–5:1)

Solomon's procession (3:6–11). "Who is this that cometh out of the wilderness like pillars of smoke, perfumed with myrrh and frankincense?" It is Solomon's carriage, escorted by sixty warriors, made of cedar of Lebanon with silver posts and gold. The daughters of Zion are called to see the king wearing the crown his mother gave him "in the day of his espousals". Praise of the bride (4:1–7). The bridegroom describes her beauty from head to toe in images from nature: "thou hast doves' eyes", hair like a flock of goats on Mount Gilead. "Thou art all fair, my love; there is no spot in thee." The enclosed garden (4:8–5:1). He calls her from the mountains of Lebanon. "Thou hast ravished my heart, my sister, my spouse." She is "a garden inclosed... a spring shut up, a fountain sealed", full of pomegranates, spices and choice fruits. She answers, "Awake, O north wind; and come, thou south; blow upon my garden... Let my beloved come into his garden." He replies, "I am come into my garden", and a voice blesses them: "Eat, O friends; drink... O beloved." This central scene celebrates the union of the wedding.

Part 4 — Lost and Found (5:2–8:4)

The knock at the door (5:2–8). "I sleep, but my heart waketh." Her beloved knocks, but she hesitates. When she opens, he has gone. She searches the city; this time the watchmen treat her harshly. She asks the daughters of Jerusalem to tell him she is "sick of love". "This is my beloved" (5:9–6:3). The daughters ask, "What is thy beloved more than another beloved?" She describes him: "My beloved is white and ruddy, the chiefest among ten thousand... yea, he is altogether lovely. This is my beloved, and this is my friend." Asked where he has gone, she knows: "My beloved is gone down into his garden... to gather lilies. I am my beloved's, and my beloved is mine." Fair as the moon (6:4–13). He praises her again as beautiful as Tirzah and Jerusalem, unique among queens and concubines: "Who is she that looketh forth as the morning, fair as the moon, clear as the sun, and terrible as an army with banners?" The chorus calls, "Return, return, O Shulamite." Into the fields (7:1–8:4). He praises her grace and compares her to a palm tree. She responds, "I am my beloved's, and his desire is toward me. Come, my beloved, let us go forth into the field... let us see if the vine flourish." She wishes they could be together openly. The final refrain follows.

Part 5 — Love Strong as Death (8:5–14)

Leaning on her beloved (8:5). "Who is this that cometh up from the wilderness, leaning upon her beloved?" The seal (8:6–7). The Song's climax: "Set me as a seal upon thine heart, as a seal upon thine arm: for love is strong as death; jealousy is cruel as the grave: the coals thereof are coals of fire, which hath a most vehement flame." The last phrase may be read as "the flame of the LORD". "Many waters cannot quench love, neither can the floods drown it: if a man would give all the substance of his house for love, it would utterly be contemned." The little sister and the vineyard (8:8–12). The brothers had wondered how to protect their young sister; she now declares she has grown and found peace in her beloved's eyes. Solomon may lease his great vineyard at Baal-hamon for a thousand pieces of silver, but she says, "My vineyard, which is mine, is before me" — her love is hers to give freely. Closing call (8:13–14). The Song ends in longing rather than conclusion: "Make haste, my beloved, and be thou like to a roe or to a young hart upon the mountains of spices."

Key themes, and the bridge to Isaiah

• The goodness of love. The Song celebrates human love, desire and faithfulness as part of God's good creation, echoing Genesis 2.
• Mutual belonging. "My beloved is mine, and I am his": love is reciprocal, exclusive and freely given.
• Love's right time. The refrain warns against awakening love before its time.
• Love's strength. Love is "strong as death" and cannot be bought or quenched.
• Traditional readings. Jewish tradition, following Rabbi Akiva, read the Song as an allegory of the LORD's love for Israel, and it is read at Passover. Christian interpreters such as Origen and Bernard of Clairvaux read it as the love of Christ and the church, or of God and the soul — echoing the Bible's wider picture of God as husband of his people (Hosea, Isaiah, Ephesians 5, Revelation 19). Many readers today hold the literal and spiritual readings together.

The Song closes the Old Testament's poetic and wisdom books with longing for the beloved's return. The next book, Isaiah, opens the prophets; it too speaks of God's love for his people in marriage language — "as the bridegroom rejoiceth over the bride, so shall thy God rejoice over thee" (Isaiah 62:5) — but first it must confront their unfaithfulness.

Overview

Isaiah is the first and longest of the Major Prophets, 66 chapters of poetry and narrative. Isaiah son of Amoz prophesied in Jerusalem in the second half of the eighth century BC, "in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah" (1:1). His world was dominated by Assyria, whose armies destroyed the northern kingdom of Israel in 722 BC and besieged Jerusalem in 701 BC. Isaiah's constant question to Judah's kings was whether they would trust the Holy One of Israel or lean on alliances with Egypt and Assyria.

From chapter 40 the book's horizon shifts. It addresses Judah in exile in Babylon (after 586 BC) and then a community back in the land, naming the Persian king Cyrus (44:28; 45:1). Many scholars therefore speak of a "First", "Second" and "Third" Isaiah (chs 1–39, 40–55, 56–66), written over a long period; others read the whole as the work of the eighth-century prophet looking ahead. Either way the book holds together around shared themes: God as "the Holy One of Israel", judgment on pride, a faithful remnant, and the future glory of Zion.

The structure: Part 1 (chs 1–12) oracles to Judah and Jerusalem, Isaiah's call and the Immanuel prophecies; Part 2 (chs 13–27) oracles against the nations and the "Isaiah Apocalypse"; Part 3 (chs 28–35) woes and promises; Part 4 (chs 36–39) the narrative of Hezekiah and Sennacherib; Part 5 (chs 40–55) comfort for the exiles and the Servant Songs; Part 6 (chs 56–66) Zion restored and the new creation.

Part 1 — Judah on trial (chapters 1–12)

The lawsuit (1). God calls heaven and earth to witness against "a sinful nation". Jerusalem is like a hut in a cucumber field. Its sacrifices and new moons are a burden to God while justice is ignored: "Cease to do evil; learn to do well; seek judgment, relieve the oppressed" (1:16–17). Yet there is an offer: "Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be as white as snow" (1:18). The mountain of the LORD (2–4). In the last days the nations will stream to Zion to learn God's ways; "they shall beat their swords into plowshares" (2:4). Before that, the day of the LORD will humble human pride. The proud women of Jerusalem will lose their finery; a cleansed remnant will remain under a canopy of cloud and fire. The Song of the Vineyard (5). The beloved plants a choice vineyard that yields only wild grapes. "He looked for judgment, but behold oppression" (5:7). Six woes follow on land-grabbers, drunkards and those "that call evil good, and good evil" (5:20). The call of Isaiah (6). "In the year that king Uzziah died" (c. 740 BC) Isaiah sees the Lord enthroned, with seraphim crying "Holy, holy, holy". Overwhelmed — "I am a man of unclean lips" — he is cleansed by a coal from the altar and answers, "Here am I; send me" (6:8). He is warned that the people will not listen until the land is desolate, but a "holy seed" will remain like a stump. Ahaz and Immanuel (7–8). Around 734 BC Syria (Rezin) and Israel (Pekah) attack Jerusalem to force Judah into an anti-Assyrian coalition. Isaiah meets Ahaz "at the end of the conduit of the upper pool" with his son Shear-jashub ("a remnant shall return"): "If ye will not believe, surely ye shall not be established" (7:9). Ahaz refuses a sign; God gives one anyway — "a virgin shall conceive, and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel" (7:14), "God with us". Another son, Maher-shalal-hash-baz, signals the swift fall of Damascus and Samaria. Ahaz appeals to Assyria, which will flood Judah "even to the neck". The child and the shoot (9–12). Beyond the gloom a great light dawns in Galilee: "For unto us a child is born… The Prince of Peace" (9:6), who will reign on David's throne for ever. Assyria is God's rod but will itself be judged for its arrogance (ch 10). A shoot from the stump of Jesse will rule with righteousness, and "the wolf also shall dwell with the lamb… and a little child shall lead them" (11:6). Part 1 closes with a song of salvation (ch 12): "with joy shall ye draw water out of the wells of salvation".

Part 2 — The nations and the whole earth (chapters 13–27)

Oracles against the nations (13–23). Babylon heads the list; its king is mocked as the fallen "day star, son of the morning" (14:12, KJV "Lucifer"). Then come Assyria, Philistia, Moab, Damascus, Cush, Egypt, Edom, Arabia, Jerusalem itself (the "valley of vision", ch 22) and Tyre (ch 23, "Howl, ye ships of Tarshish"). Isaiah walks barefoot for three years as a sign that Egypt and Cush will be led captive (ch 20). Remarkably, the oracle on Egypt ends with Egypt and Assyria worshipping alongside Israel: "Blessed be Egypt my people, and Assyria the work of my hands" (19:25). The Isaiah Apocalypse (24–27). The vision widens to the whole world. The earth is "utterly broken down" because people "have broken the everlasting covenant" (24:5, 19). Then on Mount Zion God spreads a feast for all peoples: "He will swallow up death in victory; and the Lord GOD will wipe away tears from off all faces" (25:8). "Thy dead men shall live" (26:19). God will slay Leviathan and Israel, his vineyard, will again blossom.

Part 3 — Woes and the way of trust (chapters 28–35)

Woes on false security (28–31). Samaria's drunken leaders, and Jerusalem's scoffers who have made "a covenant with death", will be swept away; but God lays in Zion "a tried stone, a precious corner stone" (28:16). The people honour God with their lips while their hearts are far away (29:13). Envoys hurry to Egypt for help: "Woe to them that go down to Egypt… and trust in chariots" (31:1). God's call is otherwise: "In returning and rest shall ye be saved; in quietness and in confidence shall be your strength: and ye would not" (30:15). The coming king and the blossoming desert (32–35). A king will reign in righteousness. Edom, representing hostile nations, faces judgment (ch 34). Then the desert rejoices "and blossom[s] as the rose" (35:1); the blind see, the lame leap, and the ransomed return to Zion on "the way of holiness" with everlasting joy.

Part 4 — Hezekiah's crisis (chapters 36–39)

Sennacherib's siege (36–37). "In the fourteenth year of king Hezekiah" (701 BC) Sennacherib takes Judah's fortified cities, including Lachish, and sends his field commander (the Rabshakeh) to Jerusalem. Standing at the same conduit where Isaiah met Ahaz, he taunts the people in Hebrew: no god has saved any nation from Assyria. Hezekiah, unlike his father, turns to God, spreading Sennacherib's letter before the LORD in the temple. Isaiah answers that the Assyrian will not shoot an arrow into the city. The angel of the LORD strikes 185,000 in the Assyrian camp; Sennacherib returns to Nineveh, where his sons later kill him in his god's temple. Hezekiah's illness (38). Told he will die, Hezekiah weeps and prays; God adds fifteen years and, as a sign, makes the shadow go back ten steps on the stairway of Ahaz. Hezekiah writes a psalm of thanks. The envoys from Babylon (39). Merodach-baladan's envoys visit and Hezekiah shows them all his treasures. Isaiah foretells that everything will one day be carried to Babylon. This short chapter is the hinge into the second half.

Part 5 — Comfort for the exiles (chapters 40–55)

Comfort ye my people (40). "Speak ye comfortably to Jerusalem… her warfare is accomplished" (40:1–2). A voice cries, "Prepare ye the way of the LORD", for the glory of the LORD will be revealed. People wither like grass, "but the word of our God shall stand for ever" (40:8). The Creator who names every star gives strength to the weary: "they shall mount up with wings as eagles" (40:31). The LORD and the idols (41–48). In a series of courtroom scenes God challenges the gods of the nations to predict the future. The idol-maker burns half a log for warmth and bows to the other half (44:9–20). "I am the first, and I am the last" (44:6). God names Cyrus as his "shepherd" and "anointed" who will free the exiles and decree that Jerusalem be rebuilt (44:28–45:1). Babylon's gods Bel and Nebo are carried off on beasts of burden (46:1), and "the virgin daughter of Babylon" is brought down (ch 47). The Servant Songs (42; 49; 50; 52–53). A mysterious Servant is chosen to bring justice gently — "a bruised reed shall he not break" — and to be "a light to the Gentiles" so that salvation reaches "unto the end of the earth" (42:3; 49:6). He suffers abuse without turning back (ch 50). The fourth song (52:13–53:12) is the most famous: "He is despised and rejected of men; a man of sorrows… he was wounded for our transgressions… and with his stripes we are healed" (53:3–5). Jewish interpreters have often identified the Servant with Israel or a righteous remnant; Christians have read these songs as fulfilled in Jesus. Invitation (54–55). Barren Zion is told to enlarge her tent. "Ho, every one that thirsteth, come ye to the waters" (55:1). God's thoughts are higher than ours, and his word "shall not return unto me void" (55:11). The exiles will go out with joy, while "the trees of the field shall clap their hands" (55:12).

Part 6 — Zion restored (chapters 56–66)

True worship (56–59). Foreigners and eunuchs who keep the covenant will be welcome, for God's house is "an house of prayer for all people" (56:7). Fasting while quarrelling and oppressing workers is rejected: the true fast is "to loose the bands of wickedness… to deal thy bread to the hungry" (58:6–7). The people's sins have separated them from God, so he himself puts on righteousness as a breastplate to act. Arise, shine (60–62). "Arise, shine; for thy light is come" (60:1). Nations and kings come to Zion's light bringing gold and frankincense on camels from Sheba; its gates stand open continually. An anointed messenger proclaims, "The Spirit of the Lord GOD is upon me… to proclaim liberty to the captives" and to give "beauty for ashes" (61:1–3). Zion will be called Hephzibah, "my delight is in her". Lament and the new creation (63–66). God comes from Edom in garments stained from judgment. The people pray, "Oh that thou wouldest rend the heavens, and come down" (64:1). God answers with a promise: "Behold, I create new heavens and a new earth" (65:17) — long life, houses lived in by those who built them, and wolf and lamb feeding together. The book ends with all flesh coming to worship before the LORD, alongside a stark image of the fate of those who rebel (66:23–24).

Key themes, and the bridge to Jeremiah

• The Holy One of Israel. Isaiah's signature title for God (about 25 times), from the throne vision of chapter 6 to the end of the book.
• Trust, not alliances. Ahaz trusts Assyria; Hezekiah turns to God. Quiet faith, not chariots or Egypt, is Judah's strength.
• Judgment and remnant. Pride is brought low, yet a stump remains, a holy seed from which a righteous king will grow.
• Comfort and return. The God who judged also comforts, promising a new exodus through the desert back to Zion.
• The Servant. A suffering figure whose obedience brings healing and light to the nations.
• The nations and the new creation. Isaiah's hope reaches beyond Israel to all peoples, and finally to new heavens and a new earth.

Isaiah closes with a vision of worldwide worship but a sober warning, and Judah's actual history has not yet reached its crisis. Assyria passed, but Babylon was coming. The next prophet, Jeremiah, would live through that storm — calling a later generation to repent, and watching Jerusalem fall.

Overview

Jeremiah is the second of the Major Prophets and the longest book of the Bible by word count. Its prophet, Jeremiah son of Hilkiah, came from a priestly family in Anathoth, a village a few kilometres north-east of Jerusalem. He was called "in the thirteenth year" of King Josiah (627 BC) and prophesied for about forty years, through the reigns of Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin and Zedekiah, until Babylon destroyed Jerusalem in 586 BC — and beyond, among refugees in Egypt.

These were the years when Assyria collapsed and Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar took its place. Judah's kings swung between Egypt and Babylon; Jeremiah insisted that Babylon was God's instrument of judgment and that resistance meant ruin. Unpopular, often imprisoned and sometimes in danger of death, he poured out his inner anguish in a series of "confessions", earning the title "the weeping prophet". His scribe Baruch son of Neriah helped preserve his words.

The book is not arranged in strict chronological order, and the Greek (Septuagint) version is shorter and orders some chapters differently. Broadly: Part 1 (chs 1–25) call and early oracles of judgment; Part 2 (chs 26–29) conflicts with false prophets and the letter to the exiles; Part 3 (chs 30–33) the Book of Consolation; Part 4 (chs 34–45) the final years, the fall of Jerusalem and the aftermath; Part 5 (chs 46–51) oracles against the nations; and Part 6 (ch 52) a historical appendix.

Part 1 — Call and warning (chapters 1–25)

The call (1). "Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee… I ordained thee a prophet unto the nations" (1:5). Jeremiah objects that he is only a youth; God touches his mouth and sets him "to root out, and to pull down… to build, and to plant" (1:10). Two visions follow: an almond branch (a wordplay on shaqed, almond, and shoqed, watching — God is watching over his word) and a boiling pot tipped from the north, a picture of invasion. Faithless Israel (2–6). God remembers Israel's early devotion "when thou wentest after me in the wilderness" (2:2), but now "my people have committed two evils; they have forsaken me the fountain of living waters, and hewed them out cisterns, broken cisterns" (2:13). He pleads, "Return, thou backsliding Israel" (3:12). If they will not, a destroyer will come from the north like a lion, its chariots like a whirlwind; Jeremiah sees the earth "without form, and void" (4:23), creation undone. No one in Jerusalem's streets does justice (5:1); prophets and priests cry "Peace, peace; when there is no peace" (6:14). The temple sermon (7–10). At the temple gate Jeremiah attacks the slogan "The temple of the LORD" (7:4). The people steal, murder and follow Baal, then feel safe in God's house: "Is this house… become a den of robbers?" (7:11). Like Shiloh, it will be destroyed. (Chapter 26 tells the reaction: priests and prophets demand his death, but some elders recall Micah's similar words and Ahikam protects him.) Jeremiah grieves: "Is there no balm in Gilead?" (8:22); "Oh that my head were waters" (9:1). God's true glory is that people should know him, "which exercise lovingkindness, judgment, and righteousness" (9:24). Covenant broken and acted signs (11–20). The people of Anathoth plot against Jeremiah (ch 11). He buries a linen loincloth by the Perath (Euphrates or a nearby stream) and finds it ruined — so God will ruin Judah's pride (ch 13). Drought and famine come; Jeremiah is forbidden to intercede, marry or attend feasts (chs 14–16). "The heart is deceitful above all things" (17:9). At the potter's house God says, "As the clay is in the potter's hand, so are ye in mine hand" (18:6). In the Valley of Ben Hinnom, site of child sacrifice, Jeremiah shatters a clay flask (ch 19). The priest Pashhur beats him and puts him in the stocks (ch 20). Jeremiah's confessions reach their darkest point — "Cursed be the day wherein I was born" — yet God's word is "as a burning fire shut up in my bones" (20:9, 14). Kings, prophets and seventy years (21–25). Oracles judge the line of kings: Shallum (Jehoahaz), Jehoiakim, who built his palace with unpaid labour (22:13), and Coniah (Jehoiachin). A "righteous Branch" from David will be called "THE LORD OUR RIGHTEOUSNESS" (23:5–6). False prophets speak "a vision of their own heart" (23:16). After the exile of 597 BC, Jeremiah sees two baskets of figs: the good figs are the exiles in Babylon, the bad ones those who remain (ch 24). In 605 BC, the year of Nebuchadnezzar's rise, he announces that "these nations shall serve the king of Babylon seventy years" and that all nations will drink the cup of God's wrath (ch 25).

Part 2 — True and false prophets (chapters 26–29)

The yoke (27–28). Under Zedekiah, envoys gather to plan revolt. Jeremiah wears an ox-yoke: submit to Babylon and live. The prophet Hananiah breaks the yoke and promises the exiles' return within two years. Jeremiah replies that God will put an iron yoke in its place, and that Hananiah will die within the year; he dies in the seventh month. The letter to the exiles (29). Jeremiah writes to those in Babylon: "Build ye houses… plant gardens… seek the peace of the city" (29:5–7). The exile will last seventy years; then "I know the thoughts that I think toward you… thoughts of peace, and not of evil, to give you an expected end" (29:11).

Part 3 — The Book of Consolation (chapters 30–33)

Restoration promised (30–31). God will restore the fortunes of Israel and Judah. Rachel, weeping in Ramah for her children, is told to stop weeping, "for thy work shall be rewarded" (31:15–16). "I have loved thee with an everlasting love" (31:3). The heart of the section is the promise of a new covenant: "I will put my law in their inward parts, and write it in their hearts; and will be their God… I will remember their sin no more" (31:31–34). The New Testament later quotes this passage at length (Hebrews 8). The field at Anathoth (32–33). During the final siege, while Jeremiah is confined in the court of the guard, his cousin Hanamel offers him the family field. He pays seventeen shekels, signs the deed before witnesses and seals it in an earthenware jar: "Houses and fields and vineyards shall be possessed again in this land" (32:15). God promises again to raise up a righteous Branch for David.

Part 4 — The fall and its aftermath (chapters 34–45)

Broken promises (34–35). During the siege Jerusalem's nobles free their Hebrew slaves, then take them back when the Babylonians briefly withdraw. By contrast the Rechabites, who refuse wine out of obedience to their ancestor, are held up as faithful. The burned scroll (36). In Jehoiakim's fourth year Jeremiah dictates his oracles to Baruch, who reads them in the temple. The scroll is read to the king in his winter house; as each few columns are read, Jehoiakim cuts them off with a penknife and throws them in the brazier. Jeremiah dictates a new scroll "and there were added besides unto them many like words" (36:32). Prison and the cistern (37–38). Leaving the city on family business, Jeremiah is arrested as a deserter, beaten and imprisoned. Officials then lower him into the cistern of Malchiah, where "there was no water, but mire: so Jeremiah sunk in the mire" (38:6). Ebed-melech, an Ethiopian (Cushite) court official, gets the king's permission and pulls him out with ropes and old rags. Zedekiah consults Jeremiah secretly; the prophet urges surrender, but the king is afraid. Jerusalem falls (39). In 586 BC the wall is breached. Zedekiah flees, is captured near Jericho, sees his sons killed at Riblah, is blinded and taken to Babylon. The city is burned. Nebuchadnezzar orders that Jeremiah be treated well; Ebed-melech is promised his life. Gedaliah and the flight to Egypt (40–45). Freed by the commander Nebuzaradan, Jeremiah chooses to stay with Gedaliah, the governor at Mizpah. Ishmael son of Nethaniah murders Gedaliah (ch 41). The survivors ask Jeremiah to seek God's will, promising to obey. God says to stay in the land; they call it a lie and flee to Egypt, taking Jeremiah and Baruch (chs 42–43). At Tahpanhes Jeremiah buries stones to mark where Nebuchadnezzar will set his throne, and condemns the refugees' worship of "the queen of heaven" (ch 44). A short word to Baruch promises him his life (ch 45). This is the last we hear of Jeremiah.

Part 5 — Oracles against the nations (chapters 46–51)

God's judgment reaches beyond Judah: Egypt, defeated at Carchemish in 605 BC; Philistia; Moab; Ammon; Edom; Damascus; Kedar and Hazor; and Elam. The longest oracle is against Babylon itself (chs 50–51): "Babylon is suddenly fallen and destroyed" (51:8), and God's people are told to flee from her. Jeremiah gives the scroll to Seraiah, who is to read it in Babylon, tie it to a stone and sink it in the Euphrates: "Thus shall Babylon sink, and shall not rise" (51:64). "Thus far are the words of Jeremiah."

Part 6 — Historical appendix (chapter 52)

A closing account, closely parallel to 2 Kings 24–25, retells the siege, Zedekiah's fate, the burning of the temple and the removal of its bronze pillars and vessels, and the numbers taken into exile. It ends in 561 BC: Evil-merodach of Babylon releases King Jehoiachin from prison, speaks kindly to him and gives him a place at the king's table for the rest of his life.

Key themes, and the bridge to Lamentations

• The word of the LORD. Jeremiah is compelled to speak; his words are burned, mocked and resisted, yet they prove true.
• Repentance and its refusal. "Return" is the book's repeated plea, and Judah's failure to return makes judgment certain.
• False security. Neither the temple, nor alliances, nor comforting prophets can protect a people who abandon justice.
• The suffering prophet. Jeremiah's confessions reveal a man torn between love for his people and faithfulness to God.
• Hope beyond judgment. Seventy years, a field bought in a siege, a new covenant written on the heart, and a surviving son of David.

Jeremiah ends with Jerusalem in ashes and a captive king eating at Babylon's table — a small sign that God has not finished with David's line. The book that follows, Lamentations, stands among the ruins and gives voice to the grief of the fallen city.

Overview

Lamentations is a short book of five poems mourning the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple by the Babylonians in 586 BC. The poems are anonymous, but ancient tradition (the Greek Septuagint introduction and the Talmud) links them with Jeremiah, who witnessed the fall; many modern scholars see them as the work of one or more poets living in Judah soon after. In Jewish practice the book is read on Tisha B'Av, the fast commemorating the temple's destruction. Its Hebrew title, Eikhah ("How!"), is the cry that opens chapters 1, 2 and 4.

The book is carefully crafted. Chapters 1, 2 and 4 are acrostics with 22 verses, each beginning with the next letter of the Hebrew alphabet; chapter 3 is a triple acrostic of 66 verses; chapter 5 has 22 verses but no acrostic. The form gives order to overwhelming grief, mourning "from aleph to tav". The structure is: Poem 1 (ch 1) the widowed city; Poem 2 (ch 2) the Lord's anger; Poem 3 (ch 3) the man of affliction and the turn to hope; Poem 4 (ch 4) the horrors of the siege; Poem 5 (ch 5) the community's prayer.

Poem 1 — The widowed city (chapter 1)

Alone and abandoned (1:1–11). "How doth the city sit solitary, that was full of people! how is she become as a widow!" Jerusalem, personified as Daughter Zion, weeps through the night with "none to comfort her" among all her lovers — the allies she trusted. Judah has gone into exile; the roads to Zion mourn because no one comes to the feasts. The poet is clear about the cause: "Jerusalem hath grievously sinned." Zion speaks (1:12–22). The city herself cries out to passers-by: "Is it nothing to you, all ye that pass by? behold, and see if there be any sorrow like unto my sorrow" (1:12). She feels the LORD has sent fire into her bones. Yet she confesses, "The LORD is righteous; for I have rebelled against his commandment" (1:18), and asks God to see her distress.

Poem 2 — The Lord's anger (chapter 2)

God as enemy (2:1–10). The second poem dwells on God's role in the catastrophe. "The Lord was as an enemy" (2:5): he has swallowed up Israel's palaces, thrown down the strongholds, "cast off his altar" and abandoned his sanctuary. The king and princes are among the nations, "the law is no more; her prophets also find no vision from the LORD" (2:9). The elders sit silent in sackcloth. Children in the streets (2:11–22). The poet's eyes fail with tears as infants faint in the streets, asking their mothers, "Where is corn and wine?" (2:12). The false prophets had "seen vain and foolish things" instead of exposing sin. Passers-by mock. The poet urges the city: "Pour out thine heart like water before the face of the Lord: lift up thy hands toward him for the life of thy young children" (2:19).

Poem 3 — Hope in the darkness (chapter 3)

The man of affliction (3:1–20). A single voice now speaks: "I am the man that hath seen affliction by the rod of his wrath." He describes being driven into darkness, walled in, weighed down with chains, his prayer shut out, his teeth broken with gravel. "My strength and my hope is perished from the LORD" (3:18). The turning point (3:21–39). At the very centre of the book he recalls something else: "It is of the LORD's mercies that we are not consumed, because his compassions fail not. They are new every morning: great is thy faithfulness" (3:22–23). "The LORD is my portion… therefore will I hope in him." It is good to "hope and quietly wait for the salvation of the LORD", for "the Lord will not cast off for ever" and "doth not afflict willingly". Repentance and plea (3:40–66). "Let us search and try our ways, and turn again to the LORD" (3:40). The speaker recalls crying from the pit: "Thou drewest near in the day that I called upon thee: thou saidst, Fear not" (3:57). He asks God to judge his enemies.

Poem 4 — The gold grown dim (chapter 4)

Reversal of fortunes (4:1–12). "How is the gold become dim!" The precious sons of Zion are treated like clay pots. The princes, once "purer than snow", are blackened and unrecognised in the streets. Famine was worse than the sword; the poet records the most terrible extremes of the siege. Kings of the earth could not believe an enemy would enter Jerusalem's gates. Why it happened (4:13–22). The sins of prophets and priests, who shed innocent blood, brought this. The people looked in vain for help from a nation that could not save (Egypt). The pursuers chased them on the mountains; "the anointed of the LORD", the king, "was taken in their pits" (4:20) — an allusion to Zedekiah's capture. Edom rejoiced at Jerusalem's fall, but the cup will pass to her too. For Zion: "The punishment of thine iniquity is accomplished… he will no more carry thee away into captivity" (4:22).

Poem 5 — The community's prayer (chapter 5)

Remember, O LORD (5:1–18). The final poem is a prayer of the whole people: "Remember, O LORD, what is come upon us." Their inheritance has passed to strangers; they pay for their own water and wood; "servants have ruled over us". Women are violated, princes hanged, young men grind at the mill. "The joy of our heart is ceased; our dance is turned into mourning. The crown is fallen from our head" (5:15–16). Mount Zion lies desolate, with foxes walking on it. An open ending (5:19–22). "Thou, O LORD, remainest for ever; thy throne from generation to generation." The people plead, "Turn thou us unto thee, O LORD, and we shall be turned; renew our days as of old" — and end with a question that hangs in the air: "But thou hast utterly rejected us; thou art very wroth against us" (5:22, KJV), often rendered "unless thou hast utterly rejected us". In synagogue reading, verse 21 is repeated after verse 22 so the book does not end on despair.

Key themes, and the bridge to Ezekiel

• Honest grief. Lamentations gives permission to mourn loss fully, in God's presence, without hurrying to answers.
• Sin and judgment. The poems do not deny Judah's guilt; the disaster fulfils the prophets' warnings.
• God's faithfulness. Even in ruins, "his compassions fail not… new every morning" stands at the book's heart.
• Order in chaos. The alphabetic form shapes grief into prayer.
• Waiting. Hope is expressed as quiet waiting and a plea to be turned back to God.

Lamentations ends with the city in ruins and a question unanswered: has God rejected his people for ever? The next book answers from among the exiles in Babylon, where the priest Ezekiel sees God's glory leave Jerusalem — and promises that it will return.

Overview

Ezekiel is the third of the Major Prophets. Its prophet, Ezekiel son of Buzi, was a priest deported from Jerusalem to Babylon in 597 BC along with King Jehoiachin and about ten thousand of Judah's leading citizens. He lived among the exiles at Tel-abib by the Chebar canal near Nippur, and was called "in the thirtieth year… in the fifth year of king Jehoiachin's captivity" (1:1–2), that is 593 BC. His dated oracles run to about 571 BC. Unlike Jeremiah, who stayed in Jerusalem, Ezekiel spoke to people far from the temple who still believed Jerusalem could not fall.

Ezekiel's book is strikingly visual: dazzling visions of God's glory, strange sign-acts that he performed in public, and extended allegories. Its central thread is the glory of the LORD — seen by a river in Babylon, departing from the defiled temple, and finally returning to a new temple. God addresses Ezekiel some ninety times as "son of man" (mortal), and the refrain "they shall know that I am the LORD" recurs more than sixty times. Most of the book is arranged in date order.

The structure: Part 1 (chs 1–3) the call and the vision of glory; Part 2 (chs 4–24) judgment on Jerusalem, up to the start of the siege in 588 BC; Part 3 (chs 25–32) oracles against the nations; Part 4 (chs 33–39) after the fall — restoration and new life; Part 5 (chs 40–48) the vision of the new temple and the renewed land.

Part 1 — The call (chapters 1–3)

The chariot-throne (1). A storm wind comes from the north, a great cloud with flashing fire. Within it are four living creatures, each with four faces — man, lion, ox and eagle — and four wings. Beside them are wheels "as it were a wheel in the middle of a wheel" (1:16), their rims full of eyes, moving wherever the Spirit goes. Above, on a crystal expanse, is a throne like sapphire and on it "a likeness as the appearance of a man", gleaming like fire and surrounded by brightness "as the appearance of the bow that is in the cloud" (1:26–28). "This was the appearance of the likeness of the glory of the LORD." Ezekiel falls on his face. The scroll and the watchman (2–3). God sends him to "a rebellious nation… impudent children and stiffhearted", whether they hear or refuse. He is given a scroll written on both sides with "lamentations, and mourning, and woe" and eats it; it is "as honey for sweetness" (3:3). He sits stunned among the exiles for seven days. Then God makes him "a watchman unto the house of Israel" (3:17): if he fails to warn the wicked, their blood will be on his hands.

Part 2 — Judgment on Jerusalem (chapters 4–24)

Sign-acts of the siege (4–5). Ezekiel engraves Jerusalem on a clay brick and lays siege to it with model ramps and battering rams. He lies on his left side 390 days for Israel's guilt and on his right side 40 days for Judah's, eating measured bread and water. He shaves his head and beard with a sword, burns a third of the hair, strikes a third with the sword and scatters a third to the wind — keeping a few strands tucked in his robe for a remnant. The end is come (6–7). Oracles against the mountains of Israel and their idol shrines; "An end, the end is come upon the four corners of the land" (7:2). The temple vision and the departing glory (8–11). In 592 BC, while the elders sit in his house, Ezekiel is lifted "by a lock of mine head" and taken in vision to Jerusalem. He sees an "image of jealousy" at the gate, seventy elders burning incense to carved images in a dark chamber, women weeping for Tammuz, and twenty-five men with their backs to the temple worshipping the sun (ch 8). A man clothed in linen marks the foreheads of those "that sigh and that cry" over the abominations, and six executioners strike the rest, beginning at the sanctuary (ch 9). The glory of the LORD rises from the cherubim, moves to the threshold, to the east gate, and finally to "the mountain which is on the east side of the city" (10:18–19; 11:23). Yet to the exiles God promises: "I will give them one heart… and I will take the stony heart out of their flesh, and will give them an heart of flesh" (11:19). More signs and false prophets (12–14). Ezekiel packs an exile's baggage and digs through a wall at dusk, a sign that Jerusalem's prince (Zedekiah) will flee and be captured (ch 12). He condemns prophets who daub a flimsy wall with whitewash, crying "Peace" when there is no peace (ch 13). Even Noah, Daniel and Job could save only themselves (ch 14). Allegories (15–17; 19; 23). Jerusalem is useless vine wood, fit only for burning (ch 15). In the longest allegory (ch 16), God finds Jerusalem as an abandoned newborn, says "Live", raises her and clothes her as a queen; she becomes unfaithful, yet God will "remember my covenant with thee… and I will establish unto thee an everlasting covenant" (16:60). Two eagles and a cedar picture Babylon, Egypt and Zedekiah's broken oath, ending with God planting a tender twig that becomes a noble cedar (ch 17). The sisters Oholah and Oholibah represent Samaria and Jerusalem (ch 23). Personal responsibility (18). God rejects the proverb "The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children's teeth are set on edge": "The soul that sinneth, it shall die" (18:2–4). Each generation stands before God for itself, and the wicked who turn will live: "I have no pleasure in the death of him that dieth… wherefore turn yourselves, and live ye" (18:32). Israel's history and the sword (20–22). A review of Israel's rebellion from Egypt onward. "A sword, a sword is sharpened" (21:9); the king of Babylon stands at a fork in the road and divines with arrows, and the lot falls on Jerusalem. God sought "a man… that should… stand in the gap" and found none (22:30). The siege begins (24). On the very day Babylon besieges Jerusalem (January 588 BC), Ezekiel gives the parable of a rusted cooking pot. That evening his wife, "the desire of thine eyes", dies; he is told not to mourn publicly, a sign of the numbing grief to come when the temple falls (24:16–24).

Part 3 — Oracles against the nations (chapters 25–32)

The neighbours (25). Ammon, Moab, Edom and Philistia, who rejoiced over Judah, will be judged. Tyre (26–28). The great Phoenician port, which gloated over Jerusalem, will become "a place for the spreading of nets" (26:5). Chapter 27 laments Tyre as a magnificent merchant ship wrecked at sea. The king of Tyre says "I am a God", but he is a man; he is pictured as one who was "in Eden the garden of God" and cast down for his pride (28:2, 13–17). Sidon is also judged, and Israel is promised safe dwelling. Egypt (29–32). Egypt, a "staff of reed" to Israel, will fall. Pharaoh is "the great dragon that lieth in the midst of his rivers", saying "My river is mine own"; God will put hooks in his jaws (29:3–4). Nebuchadnezzar will be given Egypt as wages. A final lament sends Pharaoh's multitude down to the pit with Assyria, Elam and the other fallen empires.

Part 4 — After the fall: new life (chapters 33–39)

The news arrives (33). Ezekiel's watchman commission is renewed. In the twelfth year of exile a fugitive arrives: "The city is smitten" (33:21). Ezekiel's mouth, closed since the siege began, is opened. The exiles enjoy his words "as a very lovely song" but do not obey them. The good shepherd (34). Israel's rulers were shepherds who fed themselves. God declares, "I, even I, will both search my sheep, and seek them out" (34:11). He will set over them "one shepherd… even my servant David" and make "a covenant of peace". Mountains, a new heart and dry bones (35–37). Edom (Mount Seir) is judged; the mountains of Israel will bear fruit again. God acts for his holy name: "Then will I sprinkle clean water upon you… A new heart also will I give you, and a new spirit will I put within you" (36:25–26). In the valley of dry bones, God asks, "Son of man, can these bones live?" As Ezekiel prophesies, bones rattle together, flesh covers them, and breath enters them: "an exceeding great army" (37:10). "These bones are the whole house of Israel": God will open their graves and bring them home. Two sticks, for Judah and for Joseph, become one in his hand — one nation under one king, with God's sanctuary among them for ever. Gog of Magog (38–39). In the latter days Gog, "of the land of Magog", leads a great coalition against a restored, unwalled Israel. God defeats him with earthquake, pestilence, hail and fire; the weapons are burned for seven years and the dead buried for seven months. God will "pour out my spirit upon the house of Israel" and never again hide his face.

Part 5 — The new temple and land (chapters 40–48)

The measured temple (40–42). In 573 BC, "the five and twentieth year of our captivity", Ezekiel is taken to "a very high mountain" in Israel. A man whose appearance is like bronze, with a linen cord and measuring reed, leads him through a new temple, measuring gates, courts, chambers and the sanctuary in precise detail. The glory returns (43). The glory of the God of Israel comes from the east, "his voice was like a noise of many waters: and the earth shined with his glory" (43:2), and fills the house. "This is the place of my throne… where I will dwell in the midst of the children of Israel for ever" (43:7). Laws for the altar follow. Priests, prince and offerings (44–46). The east gate is to remain shut because the LORD has entered by it. The Levites and the sons of Zadok receive their duties; a prince provides offerings for the feasts; land is set apart for the sanctuary. The river of life (47). Water flows from under the temple threshold, ankle-deep, knee-deep, waist-deep, then a river too deep to cross. It runs east to the Dead Sea and makes its waters fresh, full of fish from En-gedi to En-eglaim. Trees on its banks bear fruit every month, "and the leaf thereof for medicine" (47:12). The land and the city (47–48). The land is divided anew among the twelve tribes, with foreigners who live among them sharing the inheritance. The city has twelve gates, three on each side, named for the tribes, "and the name of the city from that day shall be, The LORD is there" (48:35).

Key themes, and the bridge to Daniel

• The glory of the LORD. God is not confined to Jerusalem; his glory appears in Babylon, leaves the defiled temple and returns to a renewed one.
• Holiness and defilement. As a priest, Ezekiel sees idolatry as pollution that drives God's presence away.
• "They shall know that I am the LORD." Both judgment and restoration reveal who God is.
• Personal responsibility. Each person and generation can turn and live.
• New heart and new spirit. Restoration is inward as well as outward: cleansing, a heart of flesh and God's Spirit within.
• Resurrection of a people. The dry bones picture a nation brought back from the death of exile.

Ezekiel ends not with the exiles' return but with a vision of a city whose name is "The LORD is there". The people are still in Babylon, waiting. The next book, Daniel, follows a group of young exiles in Babylon's royal court, learning how to stay faithful under foreign kings.

Overview

Daniel tells of a young Judean noble carried into exile in Babylon and of the visions given to him there. It opens in the third year of Jehoiakim (about 605 BC), when Nebuchadnezzar first took captives from Jerusalem, and ends in the third year of Cyrus of Persia (about 536 BC). Across nearly seventy years Daniel serves Babylonian and then Persian kings without giving up his loyalty to the God of Israel.

The book has two halves. Chapters 1–6 are court stories, told in the third person, in which Daniel and his three friends stay faithful under foreign kings. Chapters 7–12 are apocalyptic visions, told in the first person, of beasts, kingdoms and the final kingdom of God. The book is also written in two languages: 2:4b–7:28 is in Aramaic and the rest is in Hebrew. Jewish tradition places Daniel among the Writings, while Christian Bibles place him among the Prophets.

Scholars disagree about when the book was written. Many date its final form to the 2nd century BC, in the crisis under Antiochus IV. Others hold to a 6th-century origin with Daniel as the author. The captions simply follow the story as the book tells it.

Part 1 — Faithful in a Foreign Court (chapters 1–6)

Taken to Babylon (1). Nebuchadnezzar besieges Jerusalem and carries off temple vessels and young nobles. Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael and Azariah are renamed Belteshazzar, Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego and are trained in Chaldean learning. Daniel "purposed in his heart that he would not defile himself" with the king's food. After a ten-day test on vegetables and water, the four are healthier than the rest and ten times wiser than the king's magicians.

The statue dream (2). Nebuchadnezzar demands that his wise men tell him both his dream and what it means. When they cannot, he orders them all killed. Daniel and his friends pray, and the secret is revealed. The dream was a great statue with a head of gold, chest of silver, belly of bronze, legs of iron, and feet of iron mixed with clay. A stone "cut out without hands" smashes it and becomes a mountain that fills the earth. The metals are successive kingdoms, beginning with Babylon, and the stone is a kingdom God will set up "which shall never be destroyed" (2:44). Daniel is made ruler over the province of Babylon.

The fiery furnace (3). The king sets up a golden image sixty cubits high on the plain of Dura and commands everyone to worship it. Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego refuse: "our God… is able to deliver us… But if not… we will not serve thy gods" (3:17–18). The furnace is heated seven times hotter, yet the king sees four men walking in the fire, "the fourth… like the Son of God" (KJV) or "a son of the gods". The three come out with not even the smell of smoke on them, and Nebuchadnezzar blesses their God.

The king humbled (4). This chapter is written as Nebuchadnezzar's own proclamation. He dreams of a great tree that is cut down to its stump at the command of a holy watcher. Daniel explains that the king will be driven from human society "till thou know that the most High ruleth" (4:25). A year later the king boasts, "Is not this great Babylon, that I have built?" and is struck down at once. He lives like an animal, eating grass like oxen, until his reason returns and he praises the King of heaven.

The writing on the wall (5). King Belshazzar holds a feast and drinks from the temple vessels while praising idols of gold and silver. A hand writes on the wall: MENE, MENE, TEKEL, UPHARSIN. The aged Daniel reads it: "Thou art weighed in the balances, and art found wanting." That night Belshazzar is slain, and Darius the Mede receives the kingdom.

The lions' den (6). Jealous officials persuade Darius to sign a decree, which under the law of the Medes and Persians cannot be changed, banning prayer to anyone but the king for thirty days. Daniel keeps praying three times a day with his windows open toward Jerusalem. He is thrown into the den, and the king spends the night without sleep. At dawn Daniel answers him: "My God hath sent his angel, and hath shut the lions' mouths." His accusers are thrown to the lions, and Darius honours "the living God".

Part 2 — Visions of the Kingdoms (chapters 7–12)

Four beasts and the Son of Man (7). This vision is dated to Belshazzar's first year. Four beasts rise from the churning sea: a lion with eagle's wings, a bear, a four-headed leopard, and a terrible fourth beast with iron teeth and ten horns, from which a boastful little horn grows. The Ancient of Days takes his seat in judgement, and the books are opened. "One like the Son of man" comes with the clouds of heaven and receives an everlasting dominion, which is shared with "the saints of the most High".

The ram and the goat (8). By the Ulai canal at Susa, Daniel sees a two-horned ram trampled by a goat with one great horn. That horn breaks into four, and a small horn grows great and defiles the sanctuary for "two thousand and three hundred days". Gabriel names the ram as Media and Persia and the goat as Greece.

Daniel's prayer and the seventy weeks (9). Daniel reads in Jeremiah that the desolation of Jerusalem will last seventy years, and he prays a long confession for the nation: "O Lord, hear; O Lord, forgive" (9:19). Gabriel comes with the answer that "seventy weeks" (seventy sevens) are decreed to finish transgression and bring in everlasting righteousness. Jerusalem will be rebuilt, and an anointed one will be "cut off". Jewish and Christian interpreters have read this passage in different ways.

The final vision (10–12). In the third year of Cyrus, beside the Tigris, a man clothed in linen appears to Daniel. His face is like lightning and his eyes like torches. He explains that he was delayed by "the prince of Persia" until Michael came to help him (ch 10). Chapter 11 sets out in detail the Persian kings, a mighty Greek king, and the long wars between the kings of the north and the south. It ends with a "vile person" who profanes the sanctuary and sets up "the abomination that maketh desolate", yet comes to his end with none to help him. In chapter 12 Michael stands up in a time of unprecedented trouble, and Daniel's people are delivered. "Many of them that sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake," and the wise "shall shine as the brightness of the firmament" (12:2–3).

Key themes, and the bridge to Hosea

• God rules over the kings of the earth. The book repeats that "the most High ruleth in the kingdom of men" (4:17). Empires rise and fall on his timetable.
• Faithfulness in exile. Daniel and his friends serve foreign kings well but will not compromise on food, worship or prayer, whatever the cost.
• Deliverance and its "but if not". God rescues his servants from the furnace and the lions, but their loyalty does not depend on being rescued.
• The coming kingdom. The stone that becomes a mountain and the Son of Man who receives everlasting dominion point to a kingdom that outlasts every empire.
• Resurrection hope. Daniel 12:2 is the Old Testament's clearest statement of a bodily resurrection to judgement and everlasting life.

Daniel ends unanswered on a riverbank. When he asks, "How long?", he is told to "go thy way… for the words are closed up and sealed till the time of the end", with a personal promise: "thou shalt rest, and stand in thy lot at the end of the days." The book is followed by the Twelve Minor Prophets, which go back in time to the 8th century BC. The first is Hosea, who preached to the northern kingdom of Israel in its last decades before Assyria destroyed it.

Overview

Hosea is the first of the Twelve Minor Prophets and the only one of the writing prophets who came from the northern kingdom of Israel. He prophesied "in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, and in the days of Jeroboam the son of Joash, king of Israel" (1:1), roughly 755–715 BC. He began under Jeroboam II, when Israel was wealthy and its worship had decayed. He kept preaching through the collapse that followed, when six kings ruled in about twenty-five years, four of them assassinated, and Assyria pressed closer until Samaria fell in 722 BC.

The book's central image is a marriage. Hosea's love for his unfaithful wife Gomer pictures the LORD's love for an Israel that keeps running after Baal and seeking safety in foreign alliances. The book has two parts. Chapters 1–3 tell the story of the marriage and what it means. Chapters 4–14 are collected oracles that move back and forth between accusation, judgement and deeply tender promises of restoration. Its Hebrew is famously compressed and difficult, and some details are debated. Interpreters also disagree about whether Gomer was already unfaithful when Hosea married her.

Part 1 — Hosea's Marriage (chapters 1–3)

The command and the children (1). God tells Hosea, "Go, take unto thee a wife of whoredoms… for the land hath committed great whoredom." Hosea marries Gomer daughter of Diblaim. Their first son is named Jezreel, because God will punish the dynasty of Jehu for the bloodshed at Jezreel (see 2 Kings 9–10). A daughter is named Lo-ruhamah, "not pitied", and another son Lo-ammi, "not my people". Then the chapter reverses suddenly. Israel will be as countless as the sand of the sea, and "ye are the sons of the living God" (1:10).

The unfaithful wife (2). Israel is pictured as a wife chasing lovers, the Baals, and thanking them for her bread, wool, flax and wine. "She did not know that I gave her corn, and wine, and oil" (2:8). God will strip away her harvests and festivals. Then the tone turns: "I will allure her, and bring her into the wilderness, and speak comfortably unto her." The Valley of Achor ("trouble", recalling Joshua 7) will become "a door of hope". She will call God "Ishi" (my husband) and no longer "Baali". God promises, "I will betroth thee unto me for ever… in righteousness, and in judgment, and in lovingkindness, and in mercies… in faithfulness" (2:19–20). The children's names are reversed: "I will say to them which were not my people, Thou art my people."

Love redeemed (3). Hosea is told to love again a woman who has committed adultery, "according to the love of the LORD toward the children of Israel". He buys her back for fifteen pieces of silver and a homer and a half of barley, and she is to wait many days. In the same way Israel will live "many days without a king… and without an ephod", and afterwards "return, and seek the LORD their God, and David their king".

Part 2 — The Lord's Case Against Israel (chapters 4–7)

The charge (4). "The LORD hath a controversy with the inhabitants of the land, because there is no truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge of God." Swearing, lying, killing, stealing and adultery spread, and the land mourns. The priests are especially to blame: "My people are destroyed for lack of knowledge… like people, like priest." People consult wooden idols and sacrifice under oaks and poplars, and "Ephraim is joined to idols: let him alone."

Sickness and false cures (5). Priests, people and king are all caught in the judgement. When Ephraim sees its sickness it runs to Assyria, but the great king "could not heal you". God will be "as a lion unto Ephraim" and will withdraw "till they acknowledge their offence, and seek my face".

Shallow repentance (6). The people sing, "Come, and let us return unto the LORD: for he hath torn, and he will heal us… after two days will he revive us: in the third day he will raise us up." God answers that their goodness is "as a morning cloud, and as the early dew". Then comes the key verse: "For I desired mercy, and not sacrifice; and the knowledge of God more than burnt offerings" (6:6). Jesus quotes it in Matthew 9:13 and 12:7.

Palace intrigue (7). The court is "as an oven", heated by conspiracies, and "all their kings are fallen". Ephraim is "a cake not turned" and "a silly dove without heart", turning to Egypt and then to Assyria and never to God.

Part 3 — Reaping the Whirlwind (chapters 8–10)

Kings and calves (8). "They have set up kings, but not by me." The calf of Samaria is the work of a craftsman and "shall be broken in pieces". "For they have sown the wind, and they shall reap the whirlwind" (8:7). Israel hires lovers among the nations and multiplies altars for sinning.

Exile foretold (9). Harvest festivals will bring no joy. "Ephraim shall return to Egypt, and they shall eat unclean things in Assyria." The people dismiss the prophet: "the prophet is a fool, the spiritual man is mad." God remembers that he once found Israel "like grapes in the wilderness", but they gave themselves to Baal-peor.

The luxuriant vine (10). The more fruit Israel bore, the more altars it built. Its king will be cut off "as the foam upon the water", and its people will say to the mountains, "Cover us." The call still stands: "Sow to yourselves in righteousness, reap in mercy; break up your fallow ground: for it is time to seek the LORD" (10:12).

Part 4 — Love That Will Not Let Go (chapters 11–14)

The father's heart (11). "When Israel was a child, then I loved him, and called my son out of Egypt" (11:1, applied to Jesus in Matthew 2:15). God taught Ephraim to walk and drew them "with cords of a man, with bands of love". Judgement is deserved, yet God cries out: "How shall I give thee up, Ephraim?… mine heart is turned within me… for I am God, and not man; the Holy One in the midst of thee" (11:8–9).

Jacob's example (12). Ephraim feeds on wind and keeps "the balances of deceit". Hosea recalls Jacob, who grasped his brother's heel, wrestled with the angel, "wept, and made supplication", and met God at Bethel. "Therefore turn thou to thy God: keep mercy and judgment, and wait on thy God continually."

Death and the grave (13). Ephraim was once exalted but now makes silver idols and says, "Let the men that sacrifice kiss the calves." They will vanish like morning cloud, dew, chaff and smoke. God, who knew them in the wilderness, will meet them like a lion, a leopard and a bear robbed of her cubs. Yet he also says: "I will ransom them from the power of the grave… O death, I will be thy plagues; O grave, I will be thy destruction" (13:14, echoed in 1 Corinthians 15:55). The chapter ends with Samaria's fall, which history records in 722 BC.

The final call (14). "O Israel, return unto the LORD thy God… Take with you words." The people are given a prayer of repentance: Assyria will not save us, we will not ride on horses, "neither will we say any more to the work of our hands, Ye are our gods: for in thee the fatherless findeth mercy." God answers: "I will heal their backsliding, I will love them freely… I will be as the dew unto Israel: he shall grow as the lily, and cast forth his roots as Lebanon."

Key themes, and the bridge to Joel

• Covenant as marriage. Idolatry is adultery, and God is the wronged husband who still pursues his wife and buys her back.
• Knowing God. The Hebrew da'at Elohim, "knowledge of God", means faithful relationship, not information. Its absence is Israel's root sin.
• Hesed. Steadfast covenant love is what God gives and what he asks for: "mercy, and not sacrifice".
• False security. Kings, calves, Egypt and Assyria cannot save. Trusting them is sowing the wind.
• Judgement and hope together. The children's names are reversed, Achor becomes a door of hope, and even death is defied.

The book ends with a word to the wise reader: "the ways of the LORD are right, and the just shall walk in them: but the transgressors shall fall therein" (14:9). Israel's exile is coming, but the call to return is left open. Joel comes next. It is a short, undated book whose locust plague and "day of the LORD" carry the same summons, "rend your heart, and not your garments", together with the promise of God's Spirit poured out on all people.

Overview

Joel is a short, intense prophecy from "Joel the son of Pethuel" (1:1) to Judah and Jerusalem. The book gives no king's name and no date, and estimates range from the 9th century BC to the period after the exile, around 400 BC. A late date is common because the book mentions elders and priests but no king, refers to the Greeks and the Sabeans, and echoes other prophets. Whatever its date, the temple is standing and its daily offerings are central to the book.

The book is built around a real catastrophe: a locust plague so severe, together with drought, that the grain and drink offerings stopped. Joel reads the disaster as a foretaste of "the day of the LORD". In the Hebrew Bible it has four chapters, while English Bibles have three. The structure is: the plague and a call to lament (1:1–2:17); God's answer of restoration (2:18–27); the outpouring of the Spirit and signs in the heavens (2:28–32); and the judgement of the nations with blessing for Zion (ch 3).

Part 1 — The Locusts and the Day of the Lord (1:1–2:17)

An unheard-of plague (1:1–12). Elders are told to pass the story down to their grandchildren. "That which the palmerworm hath left hath the locust eaten" (1:4). Four words for locusts, perhaps stages of the insect's life, describe total stripping. The invader is "a nation… whose teeth are the teeth of a lion". Vines are laid waste, fig trees are peeled white, and "joy is withered away from the sons of men."

A call to lament (1:13–20). Priests are to put on sackcloth, for the grain and drink offerings have stopped. "Sanctify ye a fast, call a solemn assembly… and cry unto the LORD. Alas for the day! for the day of the LORD is at hand." Seed shrivels, barns lie empty, cattle groan, and "the fire hath devoured the pastures of the wilderness."

The army of the LORD (2:1–11). "Blow ye the trumpet in Zion." A day of darkness comes as a vast army "like the morning spread upon the mountains". "The land is as the garden of Eden before them, and behind them a desolate wilderness." They run like horses, climb walls, and enter windows like thieves. Earth quakes, sun and moon darken, and the LORD himself leads this army: "the day of the LORD is great and very terrible; and who can abide it?"

Rend your hearts (2:12–17). "Turn ye even to me with all your heart, and with fasting, and with weeping." "Rend your heart, and not your garments… for he is gracious and merciful, slow to anger, and of great kindness" (2:13, echoing Exodus 34:6). Everyone is summoned, from elders to nursing infants and even the bride and groom. The priests weep "between the porch and the altar" and pray: "Spare thy people, O LORD."

Part 2 — The Lord Answers (2:18–32)

Restoration of the land (2:18–27). "Then will the LORD be jealous for his land, and pity his people." He will drive "the northern army" into the desert and send grain, wine and oil. "Fear not, O land; be glad and rejoice." The early and latter rains return, the threshing floors fill, and God promises: "I will restore to you the years that the locust hath eaten" (2:25). "Ye shall know that I am in the midst of Israel… and my people shall never be ashamed."

The Spirit poured out (2:28–32). "And it shall come to pass afterward, that I will pour out my spirit upon all flesh; and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, your old men shall dream dreams, your young men shall see visions," even on servants and handmaids. There will be wonders of "blood, and fire, and pillars of smoke", and the sun will be turned to darkness and the moon to blood. "Whosoever shall call on the name of the LORD shall be delivered." Peter quotes this passage at Pentecost (Acts 2:16–21), and Paul quotes 2:32 in Romans 10:13.

Part 3 — The Valley of Decision (chapter 3)

The nations judged (3:1–8). When God restores Judah he will gather all nations into "the valley of Jehoshaphat" (the name means "the LORD judges"). They scattered his people, cast lots for them, and traded a boy for a harlot and a girl for wine. Tyre, Sidon and Philistia, which plundered the temple's treasures and sold Judeans to the Greeks, will be repaid in kind.

Swords from ploughshares (3:9–17). In a deliberate reversal of Isaiah 2:4 and Micah 4:3, the nations are summoned to war: "Beat your plowshares into swords, and your pruninghooks into spears: let the weak say, I am strong." "Multitudes, multitudes in the valley of decision: for the day of the LORD is near." The LORD roars from Zion, and the heavens and earth shake, "but the LORD will be the hope of his people."

Blessing on Zion (3:18–21). "The mountains shall drop down new wine, and the hills shall flow with milk." A fountain flows from the LORD's house to water the dry valley of Shittim. Egypt and Edom become desolate for shedding innocent blood, while "Judah shall dwell for ever".

Key themes, and the bridge to Amos

• The day of the LORD. Disaster in the present is a warning of the great day to come. That day is terrible for those who resist God and is deliverance for those who call on him.
• Repentance of the heart. Outward ritual is not enough. "Rend your heart" sums up the whole call.
• God's character. Joel builds on Exodus 34: grace, mercy and patience are the reason repentance is possible.
• Restoration beyond loss. God promises to give back "the years that the locust hath eaten".
• The Spirit for all. Prophecy will no longer belong to a few. Age, gender and social rank make no difference.

Joel ends with God's name over his city: "for the LORD dwelleth in Zion" (3:21). Amos 1:2 picks up the same words: "The LORD will roar from Zion, and utter his voice from Jerusalem." In Amos, though, that roar is turned on Israel's neighbours and then on Israel itself, as a herdsman from Tekoa confronts the wealthy northern kingdom.

Overview

Amos was "among the herdmen of Tekoa", a village in the Judean hills south of Bethlehem, and also "a gatherer of sycomore fruit" (1:1; 7:14). He was not a professional prophet. Around 760 BC, "in the days of Uzziah king of Judah, and in the days of Jeroboam the son of Joash king of Israel, two years before the earthquake", God sent him north to preach in the kingdom of Israel, including at the royal sanctuary of Bethel. Under Jeroboam II, Israel was at the height of its wealth and power. The rich had ivory-decorated houses, winter and summer homes, and crowded religious festivals, while the poor were exploited in the courts and markets.

Amos is the great prophet of social justice. The book has three parts: oracles against the nations, ending with Israel (chs 1–2); speeches of judgement against Israel (chs 3–6); and five visions, with the confrontation at Bethel and a closing promise of restoration (chs 7–9). Within a generation of his preaching, Assyria destroyed Samaria in 722 BC.

Part 1 — Oracles Against the Nations (chapters 1–2)

The lion roars (1:2). "The LORD will roar from Zion… and the top of Carmel shall wither."

The neighbours (1:3–2:3). Each oracle opens with the formula "For three transgressions… and for four, I will not turn away the punishment thereof." Damascus threshed Gilead "with threshing instruments of iron". Gaza and Tyre sold whole populations into slavery to Edom. Edom pursued his brother with the sword. Ammon ripped open pregnant women in Gilead to enlarge its border. Moab burned the bones of Edom's king. The sentence on each is the same: "I will send a fire… and it shall devour the palaces."

Judah and Israel (2:4–16). Judah is condemned for despising the law of the LORD. Then the trap closes on Israel: "they sold the righteous for silver, and the poor for a pair of shoes". They trample the heads of the poor, father and son go in to the same girl, and they drink wine taken in fines in the house of their god. God reminds Israel that he brought them out of Egypt and raised up prophets and Nazirites among them, but they told the prophets, "Prophesy not."

Part 2 — Hear This Word (chapters 3–6)

Chosen for accountability (3). "You only have I known of all the families of the earth: therefore I will punish you for all your iniquities" (3:2). A string of cause-and-effect questions follows: "Can two walk together, except they be agreed?" "The lion hath roared, who will not fear? the Lord GOD hath spoken, who can but prophesy?" God will cut off the horns of Bethel's altar and destroy the winter house, the summer house and the "houses of ivory". Only remnants will survive, "as the shepherd taketh out of the mouth of the lion two legs, or a piece of an ear."

Cows of Bashan and failed warnings (4). The wealthy women of Samaria "oppress the poor… crush the needy" and say to their husbands, "Bring, and let us drink." Amos mocks the busy worship: "Come to Bethel, and transgress." God had sent famine, drought, blight, locusts, plague and war, and each time the refrain was "yet have ye not returned unto me". So: "prepare to meet thy God, O Israel" (4:12).

Lament and invitation (5). Amos sings a funeral song for "the virgin of Israel", yet the call stands: "Seek ye me, and ye shall live… Seek good, and not evil." The LORD who "maketh the seven stars and Orion" will not be bought off. Those who long for the day of the LORD are warned that it will be "darkness, and not light", like escaping a lion only to meet a bear. God rejects their feasts and songs: "But let judgment run down as waters, and righteousness as a mighty stream" (5:24).

At ease in Zion (6). "Woe to them that are at ease in Zion." The elite lie on beds of ivory, eat choice lambs, play the harp and drink wine from bowls, "but they are not grieved for the affliction of Joseph". They will be the first to go into exile.

Part 3 — Visions, Conflict and Hope (chapters 7–9)

Locusts and fire (7:1–6). Amos sees locusts devouring the late crop and then fire consuming the deep. Both times he intercedes: "O Lord GOD, forgive… by whom shall Jacob arise? for he is small." Both times "the LORD repented for this: It shall not be."

The plumb line (7:7–9). The Lord stands by a wall with a plumb line. "I will set a plumbline in the midst of my people Israel: I will not again pass by them any more." The high places will be laid waste and the house of Jeroboam will fall.

Amaziah at Bethel (7:10–17). The priest Amaziah accuses Amos of conspiracy and orders him home: "O thou seer, go, flee thee away into the land of Judah… for it is the king's chapel." Amos answers: "I was no prophet, neither was I a prophet's son; but I was an herdman… And the LORD took me as I followed the flock." He then pronounces exile on Amaziah's household and on Israel.

Summer fruit (8). A basket of summer fruit (qayits) means that "the end" (qets) has come. Merchants can hardly wait for the sabbath to end so they can sell with small measures and false balances, "that we may buy the poor for silver… and sell the refuse of the wheat." God swears he will never forget, and he will send "a famine… not a famine of bread… but of hearing the words of the LORD" (8:11).

The Lord at the altar (9:1–10). In the last vision the Lord stands beside the altar and commands that the pillars be struck. No one will escape, whether they dig into Sheol, climb to heaven, hide on Carmel or sink to the sea floor. Israel is no more privileged than the Ethiopians, the Philistines or the Syrians. Yet God will sift the house of Jacob "like as corn is sifted in a sieve, yet shall not the least grain fall upon the earth."

The restored tabernacle (9:11–15). "In that day will I raise up the tabernacle of David that is fallen, and close up the breaches thereof." (James quotes this at the Jerusalem council in Acts 15:16–17.) The ploughman will overtake the reaper, and "the mountains shall drop sweet wine". Exiles will rebuild cities and plant vineyards, "and they shall no more be pulled up out of their land."

Key themes, and the bridge to Obadiah

• Justice is worship. God rejects ritual that goes along with cheating the poor. Righteousness must flow "as a mighty stream".
• Privilege brings responsibility. Being chosen does not exempt Israel from judgement. It makes Israel more accountable.
• God of all nations. The LORD judges the cruelty of Damascus, Tyre and Moab as well as Israel's sins, and he rules over the Pleiades and Orion.
• The prophet as outsider. A Judean farmer carries God's word into the king's own sanctuary.
• Hope beyond the end. The last word is a rebuilt house of David and a people planted for good.

Amos ends with God's promise to plant his people in their land so that they will never be uprooted again. Edom, named in Amos's oracles (1:11–12) and in his closing promise (9:12), is the sole subject of the next book. Obadiah, the shortest book in the Old Testament, condemns Edom for turning on its brother Judah on the day Jerusalem fell.

Overview

Obadiah is the shortest book in the Old Testament, at 21 verses. It is "the vision of Obadiah" (v. 1), and we know nothing else about him. His name, meaning "servant of the LORD", was a common one. The whole book is about Edom, the nation descended from Esau, Jacob's twin brother. Edom lived south-east of the Dead Sea in the rugged mountains of Seir, with strongholds cut into high rock (Sela, later Petra).

The book is not dated. Most interpreters link it to the fall of Jerusalem to Babylon in 586 BC, when Edom joined in plundering Judah and cut off its refugees (compare Psalm 137:7; Lamentations 4:21–22; Ezekiel 25:12–14). Some place it earlier, after an attack on Jerusalem under King Jehoram (2 Kings 8:20–22). Verses 1–9 closely parallel Jeremiah 49:7–22. The book has two movements: Edom's pride and fall (vv. 1–14), then the day of the LORD on all nations and Zion's restoration (vv. 15–21).

Part 1 — Edom's Pride and Betrayal (verses 1–14)

Summons to battle (1). A messenger is sent among the nations: "Arise ye, and let us rise up against her in battle."

Pride brought low (2–4). Edom trusts its mountain fortress: "The pride of thine heart hath deceived thee, thou that dwellest in the clefts of the rock… that saith in his heart, Who shall bring me down?" God answers: "Though thou exalt thyself as the eagle, and though thou set thy nest among the stars, thence will I bring thee down."

Total plunder (5–9). Thieves and grape-gatherers would leave something behind, but Esau's hidden treasures will be searched out completely. Edom's allies, "the men of thy confederacy", will deceive it and drive it to the border. The famed wise men of Edom and the warriors of Teman will be destroyed.

Violence against a brother (10–14). The charge is personal: "For thy violence against thy brother Jacob shame shall cover thee." On the day "strangers carried away captive his forces, and foreigners… cast lots upon Jerusalem, even thou wast as one of them." A series of eight "thou shouldest not" lines follows. Edom should not have gloated over its brother's misfortune, rejoiced over Judah's ruin, boasted, entered the city gate to loot, or "stood in the crossway, to cut off those of his that did escape", handing survivors over to the enemy.

Part 2 — The Day of the Lord (verses 15–21)

Measure for measure (15–16). "For the day of the LORD is near upon all the heathen: as thou hast done, it shall be done unto thee: thy reward shall return upon thine own head." The nations that drank on God's holy mountain will drink the cup of judgement.

Deliverance on Zion (17–18). "But upon mount Zion shall be deliverance, and there shall be holiness." The house of Jacob will be a fire, the house of Joseph a flame, and the house of Esau stubble.

The land restored (19–21). The returning exiles will possess the Negev, the hills of Esau, the Philistine plain, Ephraim, Samaria and Gilead, as far as Zarephath. "Saviours shall come up on mount Zion to judge the mount of Esau; and the kingdom shall be the LORD's."

Key themes, and the bridge to Jonah

• Pride goes before a fall. No height or fortress puts a nation beyond God's reach.
• Brotherhood betrayed. The rivalry between Jacob and Esau from Genesis 25–33 ends with Edom joining in Judah's destruction. Edom is condemned for standing by, gloating and profiting.
• Justice in kind. "As thou hast done, it shall be done unto thee."
• God's kingdom. Beyond the fate of one nation, the book looks to God's rule over all: "the kingdom shall be the LORD's."

History bore Obadiah out. By the 5th century BC Edom had been overrun, Arab peoples took over its mountains, and its remnants in the south (Idumea) were later absorbed into Judea. The book is a stern word against an enemy nation. The next book reverses the picture: God sends Jonah to Nineveh, capital of Israel's most feared enemy, with an offer of mercy, and Jonah does not want them to receive it.

Overview

Jonah is unlike the other prophetic books. It is almost entirely a story about a prophet, and his whole recorded message to Nineveh is five Hebrew words: "Yet forty days, and Nineveh shall be overthrown" (3:4). Jonah son of Amittai, from Gath-hepher in Galilee, is the prophet who foretold Jeroboam II's expansion of Israel's borders (2 Kings 14:25), so the story is set around 780–750 BC. Nineveh was a great city of Assyria and later its capital. Assyria was the brutal empire that would destroy the northern kingdom in 722 BC.

The book has four chapters in two matching halves. In chapters 1–2 Jonah runs from God, the pagan sailors fear the LORD, and Jonah is rescued from the sea. In chapters 3–4 Jonah obeys, the pagan city repents, and Jonah sulks over God's mercy. Some readers take the book as straightforward history. Others read it as a didactic narrative or parable, and suggest dates up to the Persian period. Jesus refers to "the sign of the prophet Jonas" and to the repentance of Nineveh (Matthew 12:39–41).

Part 1 — Flight and Rescue (chapters 1–2)

The call and the flight (1:1–3). "Arise, go to Nineveh, that great city, and cry against it." Jonah instead "rose up to flee unto Tarshish from the presence of the LORD", heading west to the far end of the known world, when Nineveh lay to the east. He goes down to Joppa, pays the fare and boards a ship. The narrator repeats the word "down" as Jonah keeps descending.

The storm (1:4–10). "The LORD sent out a great wind into the sea." The sailors each cry to their own god and throw the cargo overboard, while Jonah sleeps in the hold. The captain rebukes him: "Arise, call upon thy God." The lot falls on Jonah, who confesses: "I am an Hebrew; and I fear the LORD, the God of heaven, which hath made the sea and the dry land."

Overboard (1:11–16). Jonah tells them to throw him into the sea. The sailors first row hard for land, then pray not to be held guilty of innocent blood, and throw him in. "The sea ceased from her raging." The pagan crew "feared the LORD exceedingly, and offered a sacrifice… and made vows."

The great fish and the psalm (1:17–2:10). "The LORD had prepared a great fish to swallow up Jonah. And Jonah was in the belly of the fish three days and three nights." From inside it Jonah prays a psalm of thanksgiving: "Out of the belly of hell cried I, and thou heardest my voice… the weeds were wrapped about my head… yet hast thou brought up my life from corruption." It ends: "Salvation is of the LORD." The fish vomits Jonah onto dry land.

Part 2 — Nineveh and the Angry Prophet (chapters 3–4)

The second call (3:1–4). "The word of the LORD came unto Jonah the second time," and this time he goes. Nineveh is "an exceeding great city of three days' journey". After a single day's walk into it, Jonah cries, "Yet forty days, and Nineveh shall be overthrown."

A city repents (3:5–10). "The people of Nineveh believed God", proclaimed a fast and put on sackcloth, from the greatest to the least. The king rises from his throne, covers himself with sackcloth and sits in ashes. He decrees that man and beast must fast and "turn every one from his evil way, and from the violence that is in their hands. Who can tell if God will turn and repent?" God sees their works and relents from the disaster.

Jonah's anger (4:1–4). "But it displeased Jonah exceedingly." Now he gives his real reason for running away: "I knew that thou art a gracious God, and merciful, slow to anger, and of great kindness" (echoing Exodus 34:6). "Take, I beseech thee, my life from me." God asks him gently, "Doest thou well to be angry?"

The plant, the worm and the wind (4:5–11). Jonah sits east of the city in a shelter to watch what will happen. God appoints a plant (qiqayon, perhaps a castor-oil plant, traditionally "gourd") to shade him, and Jonah is "exceeding glad". At dawn God appoints a worm that kills the plant, then a scorching east wind, and Jonah begs to die. God makes his point: "Thou hast had pity on the gourd, for the which thou hast not laboured… And should not I spare Nineveh, that great city, wherein are more than sixscore thousand persons that cannot discern between their right hand and their left hand; and also much cattle?"

Key themes, and the bridge to Micah

• No escape from God. The LORD of sea and dry land commands wind, fish, plant, worm and east wind. Jonah cannot outrun him.
• Mercy for outsiders. The pagan sailors and the people of Nineveh respond to God faster than his own prophet does.
• Repentance and relenting. A sentence of doom can be withdrawn when people turn, because God's warnings are meant to bring them back.
• The prophet's heart. Jonah is glad of mercy for himself and angry at mercy for his enemies. The book holds up a mirror to the reader.
• God's compassion. The closing question widens God's concern to 120,000 people and even their animals.

The book ends with God's question unanswered. We never learn whether Jonah came to share God's compassion, and each reader is left to answer for themselves. Micah, a contemporary of Isaiah, comes next. Assyria now threatens Samaria and Jerusalem. Micah echoes Jonah's confession of God's character in his own closing words: "Who is a God like unto thee, that pardoneth iniquity… he delighteth in mercy" (Micah 7:18).

Overview

Micah came from Moresheth, probably Moresheth-gath, a farming town in the Shephelah, the low hills south-west of Jerusalem. He prophesied "in the days of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, which he saw concerning Samaria and Jerusalem" (1:1), roughly 740–700 BC. He was a younger contemporary of Isaiah and Hosea. During his ministry Assyria destroyed Samaria (722 BC) and then overran Judah's towns under Sennacherib (701 BC), including Micah's own region. A century later, elders cited his warning that "Zion shall be plowed like a field" and recalled that Hezekiah took it to heart and repented (Jeremiah 26:18–19).

Micah's name means "Who is like the LORD?" The book plays on it in its closing words (7:18). It falls into three cycles, each opening with "Hear" and each moving from judgement to hope: chapters 1–2, chapters 3–5, and chapters 6–7. Some scholars think parts of chapters 4–7 were added later, perhaps after the exile. The book is read here as it stands.

Part 1 — Judgement on Samaria and Judah (chapters 1–2)

The LORD comes down (1:2–7). "Hear, all ye people… the LORD cometh forth out of his place… the mountains shall be molten under him." The cause is "the transgression of Jacob". "What is the transgression of Jacob? is it not Samaria? and what are the high places of Judah? are they not Jerusalem?" Samaria will become "an heap of the field", its stones poured into the valley and its idols beaten to pieces.

The prophet's lament (1:8–16). "Therefore I will wail and howl, I will go stripped and naked." Samaria's wound "is come unto Judah; he is come unto the gate of my people, even to Jerusalem." Micah runs through the towns of his home region, Gath, Beth-le-aphrah, Lachish and Moresheth, punning on each name as he describes the invader's route.

Land-grabbers (2:1–11). "Woe to them that devise iniquity… upon their beds!… they covet fields, and take them by violence; and houses, and take them away." Families lose their God-given inheritance. Micah's hearers tell him, "Prophesy ye not." He retorts that a liar who promised "wine and… strong drink" would be the prophet this people wants.

The remnant gathered (2:12–13). "I will surely gather the remnant of Israel; I will put them together as the sheep of Bozrah." "The breaker is come up before them… and their king shall pass before them, and the LORD on the head of them."

Part 2 — Corrupt Leaders and the Coming King (chapters 3–5)

Rulers who devour (3:1–4). The heads of Jacob, who should know justice, "hate the good, and love the evil". Micah uses the image of butchers who "pluck off their skin… and chop them in pieces, as for the pot." When they cry out, God will not answer.

False and true prophets (3:5–8). Prophets cry "Peace" to whoever feeds them and "prepare war" against whoever does not, so night will fall on them with no vision. "But truly I am full of power by the spirit of the LORD, and of judgment, and of might, to declare unto Jacob his transgression, and to Israel his sin."

Zion ploughed (3:9–12). Judges take bribes, priests teach for hire and prophets divine for money, "yet will they lean upon the LORD, and say, Is not the LORD among us? none evil can come upon us." "Therefore shall Zion for your sake be plowed as a field, and Jerusalem shall become heaps."

The mountain of the LORD (4:1–8). "In the last days" the temple mount will be raised above the hills and nations will stream to it: "for the law shall go forth of Zion, and the word of the LORD from Jerusalem." "They shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruninghooks… neither shall they learn war any more. But they shall sit every man under his vine and under his fig tree; and none shall make them afraid" (4:3–4, paralleling Isaiah 2:2–4). The lame and the outcast will be gathered, and the LORD will reign in Zion for ever.

Labour pains and rescue (4:9–5:1). Zion will writhe "like a woman in travail" and go out into the fields "even to Babylon; there shalt thou be delivered". The nations gathered against her do not understand God's plan.

The ruler from Bethlehem (5:2–15). "But thou, Bethlehem Ephratah, though thou be little among the thousands of Judah, yet out of thee shall he come forth unto me that is to be ruler in Israel; whose goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting" (5:2). In Matthew 2:6 the scribes cite this verse to Herod as the Messiah's birthplace. "He shall stand and feed in the strength of the LORD… And this man shall be the peace, when the Assyrian shall come." The remnant of Jacob will be "as a dew from the LORD" among the nations. God will remove horses, chariots, sorcery and idols from Israel.

Part 3 — The Lord's Case and the Final Hope (chapters 6–7)

The covenant lawsuit (6:1–5). The mountains are called as witnesses. "O my people, what have I done unto thee?… For I brought thee up out of the land of Egypt… and I sent before thee Moses, Aaron, and Miriam." God recalls how Balaam blessed instead of cursing.

What the LORD requires (6:6–8). The worshipper asks: "Wherewith shall I come before the LORD?… with thousands of rams, or with ten thousands of rivers of oil? shall I give my firstborn for my transgression?" The answer is one of the best-known verses in the Old Testament: "He hath shewed thee, O man, what is good; and what doth the LORD require of thee, but to do justly, and to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God?" (6:8).

Wicked scales (6:9–16). The city keeps "the scant measure", "wicked balances" and "deceitful weights". Its people "eat, but not be satisfied" because they keep "the statutes of Omri" and the works of Ahab's house.

The prophet's lament and resolve (7:1–7). "The good man is perished out of the earth." No friend or family member can be trusted, and "a man's enemies are the men of his own house" (quoted by Jesus in Matthew 10:36). "Therefore I will look unto the LORD; I will wait for the God of my salvation: my God will hear me."

Rising from the dark (7:8–17). "Rejoice not against me, O mine enemy: when I fall, I shall arise; when I sit in darkness, the LORD shall be a light unto me." Jerusalem's walls will be rebuilt, and God will shepherd his flock "as in the days of old", with wonders like those of the Exodus.

Who is like God? (7:18–20). "Who is a God like unto thee, that pardoneth iniquity… he retaineth not his anger for ever, because he delighteth in mercy… thou wilt cast all their sins into the depths of the sea. Thou wilt perform the truth to Jacob, and the mercy to Abraham, which thou hast sworn unto our fathers from the days of old."

Key themes, and the bridge to Nahum

• Justice in daily life. Micah defends small farmers against land-grabbers, corrupt judges and dishonest merchants. Faith is measured in fields, courts and markets.
• Religion without righteousness. Neither temple, sacrifice nor the slogan "Is not the LORD among us?" protects those who oppress others.
• Do justly, love mercy, walk humbly. Micah 6:8 sums up the prophets' teaching on ethics.
• A shepherd-king from Bethlehem. The hope looks back to David's small hometown and forward to a ruler of ancient origins who brings peace.
• Pardon beyond judgement. The last word belongs to a God who "delighteth in mercy" and keeps his oath to Abraham.

Micah ends in praise. God will pardon sin, cast it into the depths of the sea, and keep the promises made to the patriarchs. Assyria, the threat behind so much of Micah, is still standing when the book closes. In Jonah, Nineveh was spared when it repented. Nahum, which comes next, announces the final fall of that same city.

Overview

Nahum is a short prophetic poem announcing the fall of Nineveh, capital of the Assyrian Empire. It calls itself "the burden of Nineveh" and "the book of the vision of Nahum the Elkoshite" (1:1). Nothing else is known of Nahum, and the location of Elkosh is uncertain. His name means "comfort", and the book is comfort for Judah: the oppressor will fall.

The book is set between two dated events it mentions or assumes. It refers to the fall of Thebes (No-Amon) to Assyria in 663 BC as past (3:8–10), and it looks forward to the destruction of Nineveh, which fell to the Babylonians and Medes in 612 BC. Assyria had destroyed Samaria and exiled the northern kingdom in 722 BC, and Sennacherib had devastated Judah and besieged Jerusalem in 701 BC. Nahum is in a sense the sequel to Jonah: a century earlier Nineveh had repented; now it faces judgement.

The book falls into three parts: a hymn to the LORD as the avenging judge and refuge of his people (chapter 1); a vivid picture of Nineveh's siege and fall (chapter 2); and a woe-oracle explaining why the "bloody city" falls (chapter 3).

Part 1 — The LORD the Judge and Refuge (chapter 1)

The avenging God (1:2–6). The book opens with a partial acrostic hymn. "God is jealous, and the LORD revengeth." Yet "the LORD is slow to anger, and great in power, and will not at all acquit the wicked" (1:3), echoing Exodus 34:6–7. His way is "in the whirlwind and in the storm, and the clouds are the dust of his feet"; mountains quake and hills melt before him.

A stronghold for the faithful (1:7–11). "The LORD is good, a strong hold in the day of trouble; and he knoweth them that trust in him" (1:7). But against his enemies he will make "an utter end". One who "imagineth evil against the LORD" has come out of Nineveh.

Good news for Judah (1:12–15). God has afflicted Judah, but will afflict her no more; he will break Assyria's yoke and burst her bonds. Nineveh's name and idols will be cut off. "Behold upon the mountains the feet of him that bringeth good tidings, that publisheth peace!" (1:15; compare Isaiah 52:7). Judah may keep her feasts again, for "the wicked shall no more pass through thee".

Part 2 — The Siege and Fall of Nineveh (chapter 2)

The attack (2:1–5). "He that dasheth in pieces is come up before thy face." The attackers' shields are red and their warriors in scarlet; chariots "seem like torches" and "run like the lightnings". Meanwhile the LORD restores "the excellency of Jacob".

The collapse (2:6–10). "The gates of the rivers shall be opened, and the palace shall be dissolved." Nineveh is "like a pool of water", but its people flee: "Stand, stand, shall they cry; but none shall look back." The invaders loot silver and gold from endless stores. The city is "empty, and void, and waste", and every heart melts.

The lions' den (2:11–13). Assyria was a lion that tore prey for its cubs and filled its dens with plunder. "Where is the dwelling of the lions?" God declares, "Behold, I am against thee", and its chariots will burn and its messengers be heard no more.

Part 3 — Woe to the Bloody City (chapter 3)

The charge (3:1–7). "Woe to the bloody city! it is all full of lies and robbery." A rapid picture of battle follows: whip, wheels, prancing horses, flashing swords and countless dead. Nineveh is pictured as a seductive sorceress who sold nations through her charms. God will expose her shame, and no one will mourn her.

The lesson of Thebes (3:8–10). "Art thou better than populous No?" Thebes, protected by the Nile, with Ethiopia and Egypt as her strength, was still taken captive. Nineveh's defences will fare no better.

Ripe figs and locusts (3:11–17). Nineveh's fortresses are like fig trees with first-ripe figs, falling into the eater's mouth when shaken. Its gates stand open to the enemy and fire devours its bars. Its merchants are more than the stars, and its officials like locusts that camp in the hedges on a cold day and fly away when the sun rises.

The final lament (3:18–19). "Thy shepherds slumber, O king of Assyria"; its nobles lie in the dust and its people are scattered on the mountains. "There is no healing of thy bruise." All who hear will clap their hands, "for upon whom hath not thy wickedness passed continually?"

Key themes, and the bridge to Habakkuk

• God's justice in history. The LORD is patient but not indifferent; violent empires answer to him.
• Comfort for the oppressed. Nineveh's fall is good news, a message of peace for a people long afflicted.
• Pride before the fall. Thebes and Nineveh both trusted walls and rivers; neither could stand against God's judgement.
• God's character. Nahum holds together God's slowness to anger and his refusal to clear the guilty, the same balance Jonah struggled with.

Nahum ends with a question rather than a promise, and history confirmed his vision: in 612 BC Nineveh was destroyed so completely that its site was later lost for centuries. But Assyria's fall made room for a new power, Babylon. Habakkuk takes up the harder question this raises: what happens when God uses a cruel nation to judge his own people?

Overview

Habakkuk is unlike most prophetic books. Instead of speaking for God to the people, the prophet speaks to God on the people's behalf, and argues with him. The book is a dialogue: two complaints by Habakkuk, two answers from the LORD, a series of woes against Babylon, and a closing psalm of trust. Nothing is known of Habakkuk beyond this book, though the musical notes in chapter 3 suggest a link with temple worship.

The setting is the late seventh century BC. Assyria had fallen (Nineveh in 612 BC), and the Chaldeans, the rulers of the new Babylonian empire, were rising. They defeated Egypt at Carchemish in 605 BC. Most date the book to the reign of King Jehoiakim (609–598 BC), when Judah was full of injustice and Babylon was about to overwhelm it. Some place it a little earlier, under Josiah's successors.

Structure: the first dialogue (1:1–11); the second dialogue (1:12–2:5); five woes against the oppressor (2:6–20); Habakkuk's prayer (chapter 3).

Part 1 — The First Dialogue (chapter 1:1–11)

Habakkuk's complaint (1:1–4). "O LORD, how long shall I cry, and thou wilt not hear!" The prophet sees violence, strife and contention all around him in Judah. "The law is slacked, and judgment doth never go forth": the wicked surround the righteous, and justice is perverted.

God's answer (1:5–11). The LORD is doing a work Habakkuk would not believe if told: "I raise up the Chaldeans, that bitter and hasty nation." Babylon will sweep across the earth to seize dwellings not its own. Its horses are "swifter than the leopards" and "more fierce than the evening wolves"; its horsemen fly "as the eagle that hasteth to eat". It scoffs at kings, laughs at fortresses, and makes its own strength its god.

Part 2 — The Second Dialogue (chapters 1:12–2:5)

A harder complaint (1:12–17). The answer troubles Habakkuk more than the problem. God is everlasting and holy: "Thou art of purer eyes than to behold evil." So why does he stay silent while the wicked swallow those more righteous? Babylon catches people like fish with hook and net, then "sacrificeth unto their net". Will it keep emptying its net and slaying nations without mercy?

The watchtower (2:1). "I will stand upon my watch, and set me upon the tower, and will watch to see what he will say unto me."

Write the vision (2:2–5). The LORD replies: "Write the vision, and make it plain upon tables, that he may run that readeth it." The vision is for an appointed time: "though it tarry, wait for it; because it will surely come." The proud soul is not upright, "but the just shall live by his faith" (2:4). The arrogant, greedy man, never satisfied, gathers nations to himself, but he will not endure. This verse is later quoted in the New Testament (Romans 1:17; Galatians 3:11; Hebrews 10:38).

Part 3 — Five Woes (chapter 2:6–20)

The conquered nations taunt their conqueror in five woes. Plunder (2:6–8). Woe to him who heaps up what is not his. Those he plundered will rise and plunder him. Unjust gain (2:9–11). Woe to him who builds his house by evil gain to set his nest on high. "The stone shall cry out of the wall, and the beam out of the timber shall answer it." Bloodshed (2:12–14). Woe to him who builds a town with blood. The nations labour only for the fire. "For the earth shall be filled with the knowledge of the glory of the LORD, as the waters cover the sea" (2:14). Shameful violence (2:15–17). Woe to him who makes his neighbour drunk to look on his nakedness. The cup of the LORD's right hand will come round to him, and the violence done to Lebanon will cover him. Idolatry (2:18–20). What profit is a carved image? Woe to him who says to wood "Awake" and to dumb stone "Arise"; there is no breath in it. "But the LORD is in his holy temple: let all the earth keep silence before him."

Part 4 — Habakkuk's Prayer (chapter 3)

The plea (3:1–2). A prayer "upon Shigionoth", a musical term. "O LORD, revive thy work in the midst of the years... in wrath remember mercy." God comes (3:3–15). In poetry recalling the Exodus and Sinai, Habakkuk sees God coming from Teman and Mount Paran. His glory covers the heavens; plague and pestilence go before him. The everlasting mountains are scattered, rivers and sea are struck, and "the sun and moon stood still in their habitation". He goes out "for the salvation of thy people". Trembling and joy (3:16–19). Habakkuk trembles, but resolves to wait quietly for the day of trouble. Then the great confession: "Although the fig tree shall not blossom, neither shall fruit be in the vines... and there shall be no herd in the stalls: yet I will rejoice in the LORD, I will joy in the God of my salvation." "The LORD God is my strength, and he will make my feet like hinds' feet." The book ends with a note for the choirmaster: "on my stringed instruments".

Key themes, and the bridge to Zephaniah

• Honest questions. Habakkuk brings his confusion about evil and suffering directly to God, and God answers.
• God's sovereignty over the nations. God uses Babylon to judge Judah, but Babylon is also accountable and will fall.
• Living by faith. "The just shall live by his faith": the righteous endure by trusting and remaining faithful while they wait.
• Waiting. The vision has an appointed time; it may seem slow, but it will come.
• Joy without circumstances. The final psalm finds joy in God himself even when every visible support fails.

Habakkuk moves from complaint to song without the danger being removed. Babylon would still come. The next book, Zephaniah, steps back a generation to the reign of good King Josiah, and announces the coming "day of the LORD" that Habakkuk had seen approaching.

Overview

Zephaniah prophesied "in the days of Josiah the son of Amon, king of Judah" (1:1), around 640–609 BC. Unusually, his ancestry is traced back four generations to "Hizkiah", most likely King Hezekiah, making Zephaniah a member of the royal family. His harsh descriptions of idolatry in Jerusalem suggest he spoke early in Josiah's reign, before the great reform of 622 BC that followed the finding of the book of the law (2 Kings 22–23). Josiah's grandfather Manasseh had reigned for 55 years and filled Judah with pagan worship.

The book's central theme is "the day of the LORD": a coming day of judgement on Judah and on all nations, followed by purification and joy. It is a short book of three chapters, moving from universal judgement to universal hope.

Structure: judgement on Judah and the whole earth (1:1–2:3); judgement on the nations (2:4–15); judgement on Jerusalem and the promise of restoration (chapter 3).

Part 1 — The Day of the LORD Against Judah (chapters 1:1–2:3)

A universal sweep (1:2–3). "I will utterly consume all things from off the land, saith the LORD": man and beast, birds and fish, and the stumbling blocks of the wicked. The language reverses creation.

Judah's idolatry (1:4–6). God will cut off the remnant of Baal and the idolatrous priests, those who worship "the host of heaven upon the housetops", and those who swear both by the LORD and by Milcom. He will also cut off those who have turned back and "have not sought the LORD".

The LORD's sacrifice (1:7–13). "Hold thy peace at the presence of the Lord GOD: for the day of the LORD is at hand." God has prepared a sacrifice and invited guests. He will punish princes who wear foreign clothing, those who fill their masters' houses with violence, and the merchants of the Maktesh. "I will search Jerusalem with candles" and punish men "settled on their lees", who say, "The LORD will not do good, neither will he do evil." They will build houses and not live in them.

The great day (1:14–18). "The great day of the LORD is near... That day is a day of wrath, a day of trouble and distress, a day of wasteness and desolation, a day of darkness and gloominess, a day of clouds and thick darkness, a day of the trumpet and alarm." The Latin hymn "Dies Irae" takes its name from this passage. "Neither their silver nor their gold shall be able to deliver them."

A call to repent (2:1–3). "Gather yourselves together" before the decree takes effect. "Seek ye the LORD, all ye meek of the earth... seek righteousness, seek meekness: it may be ye shall be hid in the day of the LORD's anger."

Part 2 — The Day of the LORD Against the Nations (chapter 2:4–15)

West: Philistia (2:4–7). Gaza will be forsaken, Ashkelon a desolation; Ashdod and Ekron uprooted. The sea coast will become pastures for shepherds and belong to the remnant of Judah. East: Moab and Ammon (2:8–11). They reproached God's people and boasted against their borders. They will become "as Sodom... and as Gomorrah, even the breeding of nettles, and saltpits". God will famish all the gods of the earth, and the islands of the nations will worship him. South: Ethiopia (2:12). "Ye Ethiopians also, ye shall be slain by my sword." North: Assyria (2:13–15). God will make Nineveh "a desolation, and dry like a wilderness". Flocks will lie down in it; cormorant and bittern will lodge in its pillars. This was "the rejoicing city that dwelt carelessly, that said in her heart, I am, and there is none beside me." Nineveh fell in 612 BC.

Part 3 — Jerusalem Judged and Restored (chapter 3)

Woe to the oppressing city (3:1–7). "Woe to her that is filthy and polluted, to the oppressing city!" Jerusalem "obeyed not the voice; she received not correction; she trusted not in the LORD." Her princes are "roaring lions", her judges "evening wolves", her prophets treacherous, her priests have polluted the sanctuary. The just LORD is in her midst every morning, "but the unjust knoweth no shame". Even after seeing the nations cut off, she did not change.

Wait for the LORD (3:8–13). "Therefore wait ye upon me, saith the LORD." After the fire of judgement, "then will I turn to the people a pure language, that they may all call upon the name of the LORD, to serve him with one consent." Worshippers will come from beyond the rivers of Ethiopia. The proud will be removed, leaving "an afflicted and poor people" who trust in the LORD. The remnant will do no iniquity, speak no lies, and "none shall make them afraid".

The song of joy (3:14–20). "Sing, O daughter of Zion; shout, O Israel." The LORD has taken away her judgements and cast out her enemy; the King of Israel is in her midst. "The LORD thy God in the midst of thee is mighty; he will save, he will rejoice over thee with joy; he will rest in his love, he will joy over thee with singing" (3:17). He will gather the lame and the outcast, and make them "a name and a praise among all people of the earth, when I turn back your captivity before your eyes".

Key themes, and the bridge to Haggai

• The day of the LORD. A coming day of judgement that reaches Judah first and then every nation.
• Complacency. The deepest sin is assuming God will do nothing, "neither good nor evil".
• Seeking God in humility. The meek who seek righteousness may be sheltered in the day of wrath.
• A purified remnant. Judgement is not the end; God preserves a humble people who trust him.
• God's joy over his people. The book that opens with the undoing of creation ends with God singing over Jerusalem.

Zephaniah's warnings were partly heeded in Josiah's reforms, but the change did not last beyond his death in 609 BC. Jerusalem fell to Babylon in 586 BC. The promise of gathering and return began to be fulfilled when exiles came home under Persian rule, and the next book, Haggai, picks up the story among those returned exiles in 520 BC, with the temple still in ruins.

Overview

Haggai is the second-shortest book of the Old Testament and one of the most precisely dated. Its four messages fall within four months of 520 BC, "in the second year of Darius the king" of Persia. Haggai is mentioned with Zechariah in Ezra 5:1 and 6:14 as the prophets who urged the returned exiles to rebuild the temple.

The background is the return from exile. In 538 BC Cyrus allowed the Jews to go home (Ezra 1). Under Zerubbabel the governor, a descendant of David, and Joshua the high priest, they rebuilt the altar and laid the temple's foundation (Ezra 3). Opposition from neighbouring peoples and their own hardships halted the work (Ezra 4), and it stood still for about sixteen years. Haggai's preaching restarted it; the temple was completed in 516 BC (Ezra 6:15).

Structure: four dated messages. First, a call to build (1:1–15, sixth month, day 1); second, the promise of the latter glory (2:1–9, seventh month, day 21); third, a lesson on uncleanness and blessing (2:10–19, ninth month, day 24); fourth, a promise to Zerubbabel (2:20–23, same day).

Part 1 — Consider Your Ways (chapter 1)

The excuse (1:1–4). The word comes to Zerubbabel and Joshua. The people say, "The time is not come, the time that the LORD's house should be built." Haggai answers: "Is it time for you, O ye, to dwell in your cieled houses, and this house lie waste?"

Futility (1:5–11). "Consider your ways." They sow much and bring in little; eat and drink without being satisfied; dress without getting warm; "he that earneth wages earneth wages to put it into a bag with holes." The cause is the neglected house of God, while "ye run every man unto his own house." God has called a drought on land, grain, wine and oil. The command: "Go up to the mountain, and bring wood, and build the house; and I will take pleasure in it."

The response (1:12–15). Zerubbabel, Joshua and "all the remnant of the people" obey and fear the LORD. Haggai, "the LORD's messenger", brings the promise: "I am with you, saith the LORD." God stirs up their spirits, and work begins on the twenty-fourth day of the sixth month, just 23 days after the first message.

Part 2 — The Latter Glory (chapter 2:1–9)

Discouragement (2:1–3). Near the end of the Feast of Tabernacles, the builders are disheartened. Some still remember Solomon's temple: "Who is left among you that saw this house in her first glory? ...is it not in your eyes in comparison of it as nothing?" (compare Ezra 3:12).

Be strong (2:4–5). "Yet now be strong, O Zerubbabel... and be strong, O Joshua... and be strong, all ye people of the land, and work: for I am with you." God's covenant from the Exodus stands and his Spirit remains among them: "fear ye not."

The shaking of the nations (2:6–9). "Yet once, it is a little while, and I will shake the heavens, and the earth, and the sea, and the dry land; and I will shake all nations, and the desire of all nations shall come: and I will fill this house with glory." "The silver is mine, and the gold is mine." "The glory of this latter house shall be greater than of the former... and in this place will I give peace." (The phrase "the desire of all nations" has been read both as the treasures of the nations and as a messianic title; Hebrews 12:26 cites the shaking.)

Part 3 — From This Day I Will Bless You (chapter 2:10–19)

A question for the priests (2:10–14). If someone carries holy meat in his garment and touches other food, does it become holy? "No." If someone unclean from touching a corpse touches the food, does it become unclean? "It shall be unclean." So with this people: their neglect has made their work and offerings unclean. Holiness is not contagious, but defilement is.

The turning point (2:15–19). "Consider now from this day and upward." Before the foundation was resumed, a heap of twenty measures yielded ten, and a press of fifty yielded twenty; God struck them with blight, mildew and hail, "yet ye turned not to me." Now the seed is still in the barn, and vine, fig, pomegranate and olive have not yet borne. But "from this day will I bless you."

Part 4 — The Signet Ring (chapter 2:20–23)

Shaking the kingdoms (2:20–22). A second message the same day, to Zerubbabel alone: "I will shake the heavens and the earth; and I will overthrow the throne of kingdoms... and I will overthrow the chariots, and those that ride in them."

Chosen (2:23). "In that day... will I take thee, O Zerubbabel... and will make thee as a signet: for I have chosen thee." This reverses the judgement on his grandfather Jehoiachin (Coniah), whom God had said he would pull off like a signet ring (Jeremiah 22:24). David's royal line is not abandoned.

Key themes, and the bridge to Zechariah

• Priorities. God's house and God's purposes come before personal comfort; neglecting them brings frustration.
• Consider your ways. Repeated four times, it calls the people to reflect on their lives and choices.
• God's presence. "I am with you" is the heart of the encouragement to work.
• Small beginnings, greater glory. The modest second temple points ahead to a future glory beyond Solomon's.
• Hope for David's line. Zerubbabel as God's signet keeps the royal promise alive.

Haggai's short ministry achieved its goal: the people rebuilt, and the temple was dedicated in 516 BC. His contemporary Zechariah began prophesying two months after Haggai's first message, and his book carries the same encouragement into night visions of a restored Jerusalem, a cleansed priesthood and a coming King.

Overview

Zechariah is the longest of the twelve Minor Prophets and one of the most visionary books of the Old Testament. Zechariah, "the son of Berechiah, the son of Iddo" (1:1), belonged to a priestly family that returned from Babylon (Nehemiah 12:16). He began prophesying in the eighth month of the second year of Darius (520 BC), two months after Haggai's first message, and like Haggai he encouraged the returned exiles to finish rebuilding the temple (Ezra 5:1; 6:14). His name means "the LORD remembers".

The book has two halves. Chapters 1–8 are dated to 520–518 BC and centre on the rebuilding: a call to repentance, eight night visions, the crowning of the high priest, and a teaching on fasting and justice. Chapters 9–14 are undated and consist of two "burdens" or oracles looking far ahead to the coming King, the rejected shepherd, and the final day of the LORD. Many scholars date these later chapters to a later period or a different hand; others read the book as one prophet's work. The New Testament quotes the second half often in the story of Jesus' last week.

Structure: call to return (1:1–6); eight night visions (1:7–6:8); the crowning of Joshua (6:9–15); fasting and the future of Zion (chapters 7–8); first oracle: the coming King and the shepherds (chapters 9–11); second oracle: the pierced one and the day of the LORD (chapters 12–14).

Part 1 — Return to Me (chapter 1:1–6)

The call (1:1–6). "Turn ye unto me, saith the LORD of hosts, and I will turn unto you." The people are warned not to be like their fathers, who ignored "the former prophets". Those fathers and prophets are gone, but God's words "took hold of" them, just as he said.

Part 2 — Eight Night Visions (chapters 1:7–6:8)

On the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month (early 519 BC), Zechariah sees a series of visions in one night, each explained by an interpreting angel.

1. The horseman among the myrtles (1:7–17). A man on a red horse stands among myrtle trees in a hollow, with red, sorrel and white horses behind him. They report that the earth is still and at rest. The angel asks how long God will withhold mercy from Jerusalem after seventy years. God replies, "I am returned to Jerusalem with mercies: my house shall be built in it," and the cities will again overflow with prosperity.

2. Four horns and four craftsmen (1:18–21). Four horns represent the powers that scattered Judah, Israel and Jerusalem. Four craftsmen come to terrify and cast them down.

3. The man with the measuring line (chapter 2). A man goes to measure Jerusalem, but it will be a city without walls because of its multitude. "I, saith the LORD, will be unto her a wall of fire round about, and will be the glory in the midst of her." Exiles are urged to flee Babylon: "he that toucheth you toucheth the apple of his eye." "Sing and rejoice, O daughter of Zion: for, lo, I come, and I will dwell in the midst of thee," and many nations will join themselves to the LORD.

4. Joshua the high priest (chapter 3). Joshua stands before the angel of the LORD in filthy garments, with Satan ("the accuser") at his right hand. "The LORD rebuke thee, O Satan... is not this a brand plucked out of the fire?" His filthy clothes are removed, and he receives clean garments and a fair mitre. God promises, "I will bring forth my servant the BRANCH," sets before Joshua a stone with seven eyes, and declares he will remove the land's iniquity "in one day". Everyone will invite his neighbour under the vine and fig tree.

5. The lampstand and two olive trees (chapter 4). A golden lampstand with seven lamps is fed by two olive trees. The message to Zerubbabel: "Not by might, nor by power, but by my spirit, saith the LORD of hosts." The great mountain before him will become a plain; he will bring out the top stone with shouts of "Grace, grace unto it." "The hands of Zerubbabel have laid the foundation of this house; his hands shall also finish it." "For who hath despised the day of small things?" The two olive trees are "the two anointed ones", usually understood as Zerubbabel and Joshua.

6. The flying scroll (5:1–4). A scroll twenty cubits by ten flies over the land: the curse on thieves and on those who swear falsely. It will enter their houses and consume them.

7. The woman in the basket (5:5–11). An ephah (a measuring basket) holds a woman called "Wickedness". The angel thrusts her back and seals it with a lead lid. Two women with wings like a stork's carry the basket to the land of Shinar (Babylonia), where a house will be built for it. Sin is removed from the land.

8. The four chariots (6:1–8). Four chariots with red, black, white and dappled horses come out from between two mountains of bronze. They are the four spirits of heaven going out through the earth. Those going north have "quieted my spirit in the north country".

Part 3 — The Crowning of Joshua (chapter 6:9–15)

Zechariah takes silver and gold from returned exiles, makes crowns, and sets them on Joshua the high priest. "Behold the man whose name is The BRANCH; and he shall grow up out of his place, and he shall build the temple of the LORD." He will "sit and rule upon his throne; and he shall be a priest upon his throne: and the counsel of peace shall be between them both." The crowns are kept in the temple as a memorial. Those far off will come to help build.

Part 4 — Fasting and the Future of Zion (chapters 7–8)

A question from Bethel (7:1–7). In the fourth year of Darius (518 BC), a delegation asks whether they should still weep and fast in the fifth month, mourning the temple's destruction. God replies: "When ye fasted and mourned... did ye at all fast unto me, even to me?"

What God wants (7:8–14). "Execute true judgment, and shew mercy and compassions every man to his brother: and oppress not the widow, nor the fatherless, the stranger, nor the poor." Their fathers refused, "made their hearts as an adamant stone", and so were scattered "with a whirlwind" among the nations, leaving the pleasant land desolate.

Ten promises for Zion (chapter 8). "I am returned unto Zion, and will dwell in the midst of Jerusalem," which will be called "a city of truth". Old men and women will sit in its streets, and "the streets of the city shall be full of boys and girls playing". God will bring his people home from east and west. The people are told to speak truth and judge justly. The fasts of the fourth, fifth, seventh and tenth months will become "cheerful feasts". Many peoples will come to seek the LORD in Jerusalem, and "ten men... out of all languages of the nations" will take hold of a Jew's robe, saying, "We will go with you: for we have heard that God is with you."

Part 5 — The First Oracle: The King and the Shepherds (chapters 9–11)

Judgement on the neighbours (9:1–8). The word of the LORD comes against Hadrach, Damascus, Hamath, Tyre and Sidon, and the Philistine cities. Tyre heaped up silver "as the dust" and gold "as the mire of the streets", yet will be devoured by fire. God will camp around his house as a guard.

The coming King (9:9–17). "Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion; shout, O daughter of Jerusalem: behold, thy King cometh unto thee: he is just, and having salvation; lowly, and riding upon an ass, and upon a colt the foal of an ass" (9:9; quoted in Matthew 21:5 and John 12:15). He will cut off the chariot and battle bow, speak peace to the nations, and rule "from sea even to sea". "Turn you to the strong hold, ye prisoners of hope."

Gathering the flock (chapter 10). The people have wandered like sheep without a shepherd. God will punish the false shepherds, strengthen Judah and Joseph, "hiss for them, and gather them", and bring them home from Egypt and Assyria.

The rejected shepherd (chapter 11). Zechariah acts out a parable, shepherding "the flock of slaughter". He takes two staffs, Beauty (Favour) and Bands (Union). Detested by the flock, he breaks Beauty, ending the covenant. He asks for his wages, and they weigh out thirty pieces of silver, the price of a slave (Exodus 21:32). "A goodly price that I was prised at of them!" He casts it "to the potter in the house of the LORD" (compare Matthew 27:9–10). He breaks Bands, ending the brotherhood of Judah and Israel. Then he is told to play a "foolish shepherd" who will not care for the flock: "Woe to the idol shepherd that leaveth the flock!"

Part 6 — The Second Oracle: The Day of the LORD (chapters 12–14)

Jerusalem besieged and defended (12:1–9). All nations will gather against Jerusalem, but God will make it "a cup of trembling" and "a burdensome stone" for them. The weakest of its people will be like David.

The pierced one (12:10–14). God will pour out "the spirit of grace and of supplications". "They shall look upon me whom they have pierced, and they shall mourn for him, as one mourneth for his only son" (quoted in John 19:37). Every family will mourn apart.

The fountain and the struck shepherd (chapter 13). "In that day there shall be a fountain opened... for sin and for uncleanness." Idols and false prophets will be removed. "Awake, O sword, against my shepherd... smite the shepherd, and the sheep shall be scattered" (quoted in Mark 14:27). Two thirds will perish, and one third will be refined like silver: "It is my people: and they shall say, The LORD is my God."

The LORD comes (14:1–11). Nations will attack Jerusalem, and the city will suffer. Then the LORD will fight for it: "his feet shall stand in that day upon the mount of Olives", which will split from east to west, opening a valley of escape. "The LORD my God shall come, and all the saints with thee." There will be continuous light, and "living waters shall go out from Jerusalem", half to the eastern sea and half to the western, summer and winter. "And the LORD shall be king over all the earth: in that day shall there be one LORD, and his name one."

Nations worship; all is holy (14:12–21). Those who fought Jerusalem will be struck by plague. Survivors from the nations will go up "from year to year to worship the King, the LORD of hosts, and to keep the feast of tabernacles"; those who refuse will have no rain. "HOLINESS UNTO THE LORD" will be written on the bells of the horses, and every pot in Jerusalem and Judah will be holy as the bowls before the altar. "There shall be no more the Canaanite (trader) in the house of the LORD."

Key themes, and the bridge to Malachi

• God remembers and returns. God turns back to Jerusalem in mercy, calling his people to turn back to him.
• Spirit, not strength. The temple and the future are built "not by might, nor by power, but by my spirit".
• Cleansing. Joshua's new garments, the flying scroll, wickedness carried away and the opened fountain all show God removing sin.
• Justice over ritual. Fasting means nothing without truth, mercy and care for the vulnerable.
• The coming King and Shepherd. The BRANCH, the humble King on a donkey, the shepherd valued at thirty pieces of silver and the pierced one all point to a coming deliverer.
• The nations drawn in. From the ten men clinging to a Jew's robe to the Feast of Tabernacles for all peoples, the book looks to worldwide worship of the one LORD.

Zechariah closes with a vision of a world where even cooking pots are holy and the LORD is king over all the earth. The temple was finished in 516 BC, but that vision lay far ahead. Malachi, the last of the prophets, speaks to the same rebuilt temple a few generations later and finds priests offering blemished sacrifices and a people asking whether serving God is worth it.

Overview

Malachi is the last book of the Old Testament in the Christian ordering and the last of the twelve Minor Prophets. "Malachi" means "my messenger". It may be the prophet's personal name or a title drawn from 3:1 ("Behold, I will send my messenger"); nothing else is known about him.

The book is not dated, but its setting is clear. The temple has been rebuilt and sacrifices are offered (1:7–10), Judah is ruled by a Persian "governor" (1:8), and the problems it addresses (careless priests, marriage to foreign worshippers, unpaid tithes) match those Nehemiah faced. Most date it to about 460–430 BC, a few generations after Haggai and Zechariah. The great promises of restoration seemed unfulfilled, and the people had grown cynical and spiritually tired.

Malachi is written as a series of six disputes. God makes a statement, the people object ("Yet ye say, Wherein...?"), and God answers. Structure: God's love (1:1–5); the priests' contempt (1:6–2:9); faithlessness in marriage (2:10–16); the coming day of judgement (2:17–3:6); robbing God (3:7–12); the vindication of the faithful (3:13–4:3); closing appeal and promise of Elijah (4:4–6). (In Hebrew Bibles chapter 4 is counted as 3:19–24.)

Part 1 — "I Have Loved You" (chapter 1:1–5)

God's love questioned (1:2–5). "I have loved you, saith the LORD. Yet ye say, Wherein hast thou loved us?" God points to the brothers Jacob and Esau: "I loved Jacob, and I hated Esau." The language is covenant language of choosing rather than emotion. Edom, Esau's nation, lies waste and will not be rebuilt, while Israel has been restored. "The LORD will be magnified from the border of Israel."

Part 2 — Priests Who Despise God's Name (chapters 1:6–2:9)

Where is my honour? (1:6–10). "A son honoureth his father, and a servant his master: if then I be a father, where is mine honour?" The priests ask, "Wherein have we despised thy name?" They offer "polluted bread" and bring blind, lame and sick animals. "Offer it now unto thy governor; will he be pleased with thee?" God wishes someone would shut the temple doors rather than light his altar in vain.

Great among the nations (1:11–14). "From the rising of the sun even unto the going down of the same my name shall be great among the Gentiles; and in every place incense shall be offered unto my name, and a pure offering." Yet the priests sniff at the altar and say, "What a weariness is it!" "I am a great King, saith the LORD of hosts."

The covenant with Levi (2:1–9). God warns the priests that he will curse their blessings. He recalls his covenant of "life and peace" with Levi: "The law of truth was in his mouth... he walked with me in peace and equity, and did turn many away from iniquity. For the priest's lips should keep knowledge... for he is the messenger of the LORD of hosts." These priests have turned aside, caused many to stumble, and shown partiality in the law.

Part 3 — Faithlessness in Marriage (chapter 2:10–16)

One Father (2:10–12). "Have we not all one father? hath not one God created us? why do we deal treacherously every man against his brother?" Judah has "married the daughter of a strange god", joining with worshippers of other gods.

The wife of your youth (2:13–16). The people cover the altar "with tears, with weeping" and ask why God no longer accepts their offerings. "Because the LORD hath been witness between thee and the wife of thy youth, against whom thou hast dealt treacherously: yet is she thy companion, and the wife of thy covenant." God seeks "a godly seed". "For the LORD, the God of Israel, saith that he hateth putting away." "Take heed to your spirit, that ye deal not treacherously."

Part 4 — The Messenger and the Refiner (chapters 2:17–3:6)

Where is the God of judgement? (2:17). "Ye have wearied the LORD with your words." The people say that evildoers are good in God's sight, and ask, "Where is the God of judgment?"

My messenger (3:1). "Behold, I will send my messenger, and he shall prepare the way before me: and the Lord, whom ye seek, shall suddenly come to his temple, even the messenger of the covenant, whom ye delight in." The Gospels apply this verse to John the Baptist (Mark 1:2; Matthew 11:10).

Refiner's fire (3:2–6). "But who may abide the day of his coming? and who shall stand when he appeareth? for he is like a refiner's fire, and like fullers' soap." He will purify the sons of Levi "as gold and silver", so their offerings will please him again. He will be "a swift witness" against sorcerers, adulterers, false swearers, and those who oppress the hired worker, the widow, the fatherless and the stranger. "For I am the LORD, I change not; therefore ye sons of Jacob are not consumed."

Part 5 — Robbing God (chapter 3:7–12)

Return to me (3:7). "Return unto me, and I will return unto you." "But ye said, Wherein shall we return?" Tithes and offerings (3:8–12). "Will a man rob God? Yet ye have robbed me... In tithes and offerings." The nation is under a curse. "Bring ye all the tithes into the storehouse, that there may be meat in mine house, and prove me now herewith... if I will not open you the windows of heaven, and pour you out a blessing." God will rebuke the devourer, and all nations will call them blessed, "a delightsome land".

Part 6 — The Faithful Remembered (chapters 3:13–4:3)

"It is vain to serve God" (3:13–15). The people complain that keeping God's charge brings no profit; the proud are happy and the wicked prosper. The book of remembrance (3:16–18). "Then they that feared the LORD spake often one to another: and the LORD hearkened, and heard it, and a book of remembrance was written before him." "They shall be mine, saith the LORD of hosts, in that day when I make up my jewels." Then the difference between righteous and wicked will be plain. The day like an oven (4:1–3). "The day cometh, that shall burn as an oven; and all the proud... shall be stubble." "But unto you that fear my name shall the Sun of righteousness arise with healing in his wings; and ye shall go forth, and grow up as calves of the stall."

Part 7 — Remember Moses, Expect Elijah (chapter 4:4–6)

The law (4:4). "Remember ye the law of Moses my servant, which I commanded unto him in Horeb." Elijah (4:5–6). "Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the LORD: and he shall turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers, lest I come and smite the earth with a curse."

Key themes, and the close of the Old Testament

• God's steadfast love. The book opens with "I have loved you" and rests on "I change not".
• Wholehearted worship. God deserves the best, not leftovers; careless worship despises his name.
• Covenant faithfulness. Priests, husbands and the whole people are called to keep faith with God and one another.
• Justice. God will judge those who oppress the vulnerable.
• The faithful remnant. God hears those who fear him and keeps a book of remembrance for them.
• The coming messenger. The book looks forward to a messenger who prepares the way, the Lord's sudden coming to his temple, and Elijah's return.

Malachi ends with a promise rather than a resolution. After him, no further prophetic book was added to the Hebrew scriptures, and roughly four centuries followed in which Judah passed from Persian to Greek to Roman rule. The faithful kept the law and waited. In Jewish tradition Elijah is still awaited, and a cup is set for him at the Passover table. In the Christian Bible the next pages, the Gospels, open with "a voice crying in the wilderness" and present John the Baptist as the messenger Malachi foretold. Either way, the Old Testament closes looking forward: "the Lord, whom ye seek, shall suddenly come to his temple."